
Class V£ f ill 
Book 73 c L2 



/ 



vi V 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 






-TAUGHT IN 



PLAIN, FAMILIAR 



CONVERSATIONS, 



By UNCLE JONATHAN. 









Remember, language is a gift divine : 

In all you say, let truth and candor shine. 




TJTICA, 1ST. Y. 

PUBLISHED BY THE AUTHOR, 
1867. 






Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1867, bj 

la the Clerk's Office of the District Court for the Northern District 
of New York, 



PEEFAOE. 



My fellow-teachers, and my little friends, be not offended nor surprised 
to see another grammar : for of making many books there is no end. 
Yet many grammars are soon ended. Some scarcely breathe the breath 
of life before they pass away ; and some remain above ground many 
years, and linger in our schools, as dead as dull, cold marble. Such may 
be the fate of mine. No author knows his destiny ; and few can see 
themselves as others see them. Authors, like fond doting mothers, are 
too apt to think their mental progeny are free from faults, while shocking 
blemishes are plainly to be seen in all the neighbors' children. How 
much I am biased by such foolish notions it is not for me to say : you 
are my judge and jury. 

If you ask me why I come before you with this grammar, can I, with 
becoming modesty, pretend to have produced a belter work than any of 
my predecessors ? If I have not done so, why should you be troubled 
with my book ? Is change without improvement useful ? How can I 
escape from this dilemma ? What apology or plea have I to offer ? 
Shall I tell you of my wishes and endeavors to improve our mode of 
teaching, and to lighten all your burdens in the school-room? or 
assure you of my sympathy in all your troubles, trials, and vexations ? 
(for I, too, have wielded the birch and flourished the ferule ;) or, relying 
on your own good sense to find out all its merits, and the author's aspi- 
rations, motives, and achievements, shall I just extend to you the hand of 
fellowship, and only give you a land greeting ? Or must I tell you how 
I came to write a grammar, and how many hours I have spent in solitary 
musings, to devise some plan to help you "rear the tender thought, and' 
teach the young idea how to shoot" — to trace our language to its source, . 
and see the early dawning and diffusion of intelligence ; to analyze the 
human mind, and ascertain the origin of our ideas and thoughts ; to 
watch their growth ; to take their gauge and their dimensions ; to observe • 
their nice dependencies, relations, variations, and connections ; and to 
see that they are symbolized in proper words and sentences, and so pre- 
sented to the ear or eye as to make the best impression ? What a task 
it is for a modest man to write a preface ! 

With few Ideas or thoughts at my command, 
My month I open, and extend the hand. 
Hushed is the voice of my poor blushing muse : 
She scans each look as you this hook peruse. 

To render English grammar interesting, pleasing, and attractive to the 



4 PREFACE. 

learner, by reducing theory to practice in familiar language easily under- 
stood by children, is the object of this little book. To entertain, enliveD, 
and instruct ; to gain, and fix attention ; to adapt this abstruse science 
to a child's capacity ; to cheer you in your mental labors ; while away 
the tedious of abstract study ; scatter sweet wild-flowers in the paths of 
learning; and amuse your leisure hours; I have introduced familiar 
conversations, representing children of different ages and capacities 
conversing with their teachers about the principles of grammar, and re- 
ducing them to practice. 

When so many able writers and accomplished scholars have employed 
their pens in writing grammars, it may seem presumptuous for a person 
so obscure and humble as myself to add another. But by long experi- 
ence in teaching, I have been constrained to think that all our grammars 
are too theoretical for children ; destitute of life and spirit ; stiff and 
cold ; presenting to their view the ghastly skeleton of language, or some 
shadowy imaginary phantom conjured up from Greek and Latin, rather 
than the comely living form and smiling features of our native English. 
I am not disposed to treat these learned and profound grammarians with 
disrespect, nor yet to bow before their high authority with blind unthink- 
ing veneration. With due deference to all, I take the liberty to think 
for myself, and try to make a genuine live grammar. Though it may be 
less elaborate and dignified than theirs, I hope you will remember that 
" a living dog is better than a dead lion." 

We should carefully consult our grammars, not as oracles, but coun- 
sellors ; and then let reason, truth, and common sense decide. Their 
authors were but men like us, however learned and illustrious ; and we 
like them, are liable to err. They did the best they could to polish and 
refine our language, and improve our literature. For this they merit 
our respect and gratitude. So we should look upon their errors as the 
faults of kind and faithlul friends, remembering our own infirmities, and 
not indulge in harsh criticisms on their imperfection ; 

" But, sad as ansels for the gcod man's 6in, 
Weep to record, and blush to give it in." 

To perfect our mother tongue, much has been done by them ; but 
more remains for us to do. The spirit of improvement is immortal ; and 
our language will forever be approaching, though it cannot reach, the 
standard of perfection. Change and alteration are the very essence of 
life ; and progress is the universal law of nature in the mental as well as 
in the material world. New thoughts and books spring up from old 
ones, like beautiful flowers from dead, decaying matter. Behold, I make 
all things new, is written all around us and within us. 



CONVERSATION FIRST. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Peter Puzzle. What are you doing, William ? 

William. Putting this old musty grammar into my 
desk. 

P. P. Have you got your lesson ready to recite ? 

W. No, sir : I don't mean to study grammar any 
more. I hate the sight of it. 

Ida. So do I : I'm perfectly disgusted with it. 

Phebe. O ! it is too bad to be shut up here in this old 
dusty school house, dozing over grammar such fine, 
pleasant weather, when the birds are singing, and the 
flowers are blooming all around us. 

John. I can't see what good it does to study gram- 
mar. 

P. P. Is it not a fine accomplishment to speak and 
write correctly ? 

Sarah. Does grammar give us this accomplishment? 

P. P. Is not English grammar the .art of speaking 
and writing the English language correctly ? 

S. My grammar says so. But I don't believe it ; for 
my sisters, who have never studied grammar, speak 
and write as well as I can, after studying it four years. 

P. P. Here's Dr. Syntax. He can tell you all about it. 

Dr. Syntax. We can never learn to speak and write 
correctly, though we study and commit to memory all 
the grammars in the world, unless we practice what we 
learn. We might as well commit arithmetic or algebra 
to memory without ciphering, or solving any problems. 
Besides, your definition is too comprehensive. It em- 
braces rhetoric and logic ; for, to speak and write cor- 
rectly, we must be good practical grammarians, rheto- 
ricians, and logicians. Our language may be perfectly 
grammatical, and yet be faulty with respect to rhetoric 



'6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

and logic, and, of course, incorrect. Let me narrow 
down your definition to its proper limits. 

Grammar is the art of constructing and pro- 
nouncing words and sentences correctly. 

It deals with single words and sentences, while rhet- 
oric and logic regulate the whole discourse, combining 
and arranging all its parts so as to make it most con- 
vincing, pleasing, and persuasive. 

P. P. How do you like this definition, Dr. Syntax: 
grammar is the science of language ? 

Dr. jS. It is liable to just the same objection as the oth- 
er, and is very vague and indefinite, besides. The theory 
of grammar, which investigates the general principles 
of language, is a science ; but the practical application 
of it is an art. Science is to know ; art is to do. One 
consists in understanding general principles ; the other, 
in performing skillfully particular arts in harmony with 
general principles ; one, in speculative thought ; the 
other, in well regulated, systematic, skillful action. A 
principle in science is a rule of art. The life of one 
is knowledge ; of the other, skill. Science is acquired 
by study ; art, by practice. The end and aim of one 
is truth ; and of the other, usefulness and beauty. Sci- 
ence is the "guide, philosopher, and friend" of art 

The eye of Science, beaming with the light 
Of truth, directs the hand of Art aright, 
Till all her works are polished and refined : 
Without the aid of Science, Art is blind. 

P. P. Are not these, or similar definitions, generally 
adopted by our best grammarians, and sanctioned by 
established authority? 

Dr. S. We authors, teachers, and professors, are too 
apt to magnify our favorite arts and sciences, by claim- 
ing more than properly belongs to what we teach. 
Whether we are fiddlers or philosophers, we are alike 
puffed up with the importance of our calling, and are 
equally vain of our art. Thus, scientific truth is sacri- 
ficed to vanity. Clear, concise, and accurate definitions 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 7 

are essential to a right understanding of the principles 
of any art or science. They should comprehend all 
that we intend, and nothing else. 

Robert Dr. Syntax, your remarks are too profound 
for us to understand them. We have never studied 
rhetoric or logic. 

Dr. S. They are intended for your teacher. I will 
now address a few plain words to you. As master 
builders of the fair fabric of language, we gramma- 
rians first teach you how to put letters properly together 
into words, then we teach you how to classify and 
vary words, to trace their derivation, and prepare them 
for constructing sentences — as the carpenter frames his 
building, classifying, picking out and fitting every tim- 
ber for its place, before he raises it ; then we teach you 
how to put your words together into sentences, as he 
puts together all the timbers he has framed to build a 
house ; and, finally, to ornament and beautify our work, 
we teach the true pronunciation of words, and the po- 
etical construction of sentences. Therefore, 

Grammar is divided into four parts : Orthogra- 
phy, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody. 

Orthography is the proper combination of let- 
ters into words. 

Etymology is the proper classification of words 
into parts of speech ; explaining all their varia- 
tions and their derivation. 

Syntax is the proper combination of words in 
the construction of sentences. 

Prosody is the proper pronunciation of words 
and sentences ; comprising elocution, punctuation, 
and versification. 

Here you have a bird's-eye view of grammar, for con- 
venience's sake, divided into four parts. The first part 
you began to study when you learned your letters ; and 
you have been studying it more or less ever since ; for 
every spelling lesson is an exercise in orthography. In 



8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

its primitive sense, orthography refers to written lan- 
guage ; signifying, literally, the writing of words with 
the proper letters, without regard to their pronuncia- 
tion, which belongs to prosody. When you spell 
orally, you are studying orthography and prosody to- 
gether ; for you learn the pronunciation and the spelling 
of each word. In every reading exercise, if properly 
conducted, you are getting a practical knowledge of 
prosody. 

I. Are we studying grammar when we learn to spell 
and read ? 

Dr. JS. To be sure you are: to spell and read cor- 
rectly, you must have a practical knowledge of orthog- 
raphy and prosody. 

Lydia. Then we all know something about grammar. 

P. P. It appears so. But it never has occurred to 
me that little children, learning the alphabet, or just 
beginning to spell and read, are studying grammar. 

Dr. S. Why, Mr. Puzzle ! letters are the rudiments of 
grammar, the symbols of articulate and vocal sounds, 
which are the elements of speech. Letters form words ; 
and words form sentences, of which the whole of every 
language is composed. Without them we could have 
no grammar, literature, or science. Letters are the 
golden keys that open the portals of knowledge, and 
unlock the temple of truth. Despise not, then, these 
little learners of the alphabet ; for children can be 
taught propriety of speech by precept and example, 
when they first begin to talk. Unblemished and un- 
biased by bad habits, they are then peculiarly suscepti- 
ble of right impressions and correct expressions. In 
this early spring-time of their lives, the seeds of gram- 
mar, sown broad-cast by Nature's hand, are springing 
up with every young idea and tender thought. They 
only need a little cultivation. Never let them hear a 
wrong expression from your lips; no silly, senseless 
vulgarism, or puerility. To them, words fitly spoken 
are like apples of gold in pictures of silver. Let your 
language be pure, simple, and correct In teaching 
them, be careful how you puzzle them with what they 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 9 

can not understand, or hurry them from one thing to 
another, giving them no time for close examination. 
Fix their attention on but one thing at a time, till it is 
thoroughly imprinted on the memory ; and pursue some 
easy mode of gradual combination. Lead them gently 
up the hill of science ; pausing now and then to let 
them rest, and gather sweet wild flowers by the way. 

At the very starting-point of education, children are 
bewildered and discouraged by our common mode of 
teaching them the alphabet, which is a flagrant viola- 
tion of the principles of intellectual philosophy and 
common sense. As they repeat the letters rapidly after 
the teacher — hurrying through the alphabet, without 
stopping to examine them and fix them in the memory, 
they are puzzled- and perplexed with their uncouth 
names and strange fantastic shapes, all jumbled to- 
gether in their minds, a Babel of inextricable confusion. 

P. P. That is the way I've always taught my schol- 
ars. Any dunce can learn his ietters by repeating 
them day after day. Have you some scientific way to 
teach the alphabet ? 

Dr. B. The scientific teacher treats the smallest chil- 
dren in his school as thinking beings, not as parrots. 
"My little friends," says he, "can any of you tell me 
what you come to school for?" "To learn to read," 
reply two or three of them at once. " Then you must 
learn your letters. This is a. Look sharp at it, so 
that you will know it when you see it again. Now, 
take this newspaper, and see how many a's you can 
point out for me. Well done. Here is a newspaper 
for each one of you to read. Go to your seats and pick 
out all the a's that you can find." With bounding hearts, 
away they glide on tiptoe to their seats ; and there 
they sit, reading the news with all the gravity and dig- 
nity imaginable. In about an hour he calls them up 
again, and drills them thoroughly five minutes on the 
elementary sounds of a / and then he sends them back 
with papers in their hands, and wide awake, to pick 
out e. So, every hour, they learn a letter and its 
sounds, and thus obtain the mastery of all the vowels 



10 ENGLISH GRAMMAE. 

in a single day. Next morning, bright and early, they 
appear, armed and equipped, to make a grand assault 
upon the consonants. They seize on b. With lips 
compressed, they try to sound it by itself. But soon 
they find that it is mute, and has no power to open the 
mouth and speak, unaided by a vowel. So, uniting it 
with a, e, i f o and w, they make it vocal, and begin to 
spell ba, be, bi, bo, bu ; ab, eb, ib, ob, ub. Thus they pro- 
ceed, day after day, to scan the features of the consonants, 
and give them voice and utterance ; subduing every 
stubborn, close-mouthed, sulky mute, and all the noisy, 
buzzing, hissing, humming semi-vowels. In about ten 
days they can distinguish all the letters, and repeat 
all the elementary sounds in our language, spell easy 
words of two letters, and read a few short sentences 
consisting of such words. 

P. P. Why, Dr. Syntax ! is it possible ? It takes 
my stupid little dunces several months to learn the al- 
phabet. I sometimes think, they never can learn any- 
thing but mischief. 

Dr. S. Throughout all nature, like produces like. 
This is especially true of intellectual qualities. There 
is a sort of mental propagation. The teacher's dullness 
soon pervades his school, producing a whole tribe of 
dunces like himself; and yet he is ashamed to own his 
mental progeny, and charges nature with their dullness. 
Nature vindicates herself by making them expert in 
mischief. Who can blame them? If the teacher fails 
to make their studies interesting, they must have a little 
fun to keep themselves awake. It is far better to be 
mischievous than stupid. 

P. P. You're quite severe upon me, Dr. Syntax; 
making me responsible for all the dunces in my school. 
I suppose I shall be made the hero of your story, when 
you write a Dunciade. But how can you, or I, or any- 
body, make these little urchins interested in their 
studies? 

Dr. S. Arouse their native love of knowledge. Show 
them what they are studying for, and keep some noble 
purpose constantly in view. Never let them doze 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 11 

away their time in aimless, dreamy idleness. Excite 
their curiosity and emulation. Let them see that they 
are making progress in their studies, and encourage 
them to persevere. Conduct them gradually from one 
thing to another, at each step, combining what they 
learn with what they knew before. Our nursery lesson : 
This is the house that Jack built, &c, which every 
child delights to learn, is a good specimen of gradual 
combination ; so are numeration, demonstrations in 
geometry, and our common mode of spelling. Our 
disregard of this plain principle of intellectual philoso- 
phy in teaching grammar, makes it so extremely diffi- 
cult to learn, and, therefore, odious to learners. Who 
could ever learn arithmetic, geometry, or algebra, or 
even the pronunciation of long words, without observ- 
ing it? Can any of you pronounce this word without 
combining each syllable with those that precede it? 

J. A-b ab, r-a ra, c-a ca, d-a-b dab, r-a ra. I give it up. 

P. A-b ab, r-a ra abra, c-a ca abraca, d-a-b dab abraca- 
dab, r-a ra abracadabra. 

J. You did 'nt do as he said. Any of us can pro- 
nounce it so. 

Dr. S. That is the right pronunciation, Phebe. But 
you did not follow my directions. You observed the 
common method of combining each syllable with the 
preceding, which is perfectly natural and easy. This 
plain principle is applicable to almost every branch of 
learning. It connects and holds our ideas and thoughts 
together, and impresses them upon the memory. It 
pervades the intellectual world, and is to mind what 
gravitation is to matter : 

It makes each system in gradation roll, 
Alike essential to the amazing whole. 

Concentration of the rays of thought on one thing at a 
time, and gradual combination, are the basis of the 
art of teaching. Skillful teachers first emblazon on 
the memory, plain, clear, lucid definitions, explanations, 
and examples of the principles of all the arts and sci- 
ences they teach, then gradually combine them into 



12 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

perfect systems ; showing, at each step, their practical 
application. 

jR. What are the elements of language? 

Dr. S. The elements of spoken language are articu- 
late and vocal sounds ; and letters are the elements of 
written language. Articulate sounds are so called be- 
cause they are articulated, forming, as it were, the 
joints of vocal sounds, so that we frame our syllables 
and words by opening and closing the mouth, or joining 
and disjoining the organs of speech, and thus produce 
a proper intermixture of vowel and consonant sounds, 
to give fluency and melody to language. " The sweet 
music of speech," like instrumental music, is produced 
by skillfully opening and closing the apertures of the 
musical instrument. Articulation is peculiar to the 
human voice. Brutes can utter vocal sounds, by open- 
ing the mouth ; but they cannot articulate them, so as 
to form words. An articulate sound is a sound of the 
human voice articulated by the organs of speech. A 
vocal sound is a sound of the human voice proceeding 
from an open mouth. 

P. P. Are not all the sounds we use in speaking 
vocal ? 

Dr. S. Speech consists of vocal and articulate sounds, 
so blended together as to form words and sentences 
agreeable to the ear, and easy to the speaker. Vocal 
sounds constitute the limbs and body of language, and 
articulate sounds its joints. We cannot speak without 
opening the mouth. Articulation intercepts the voice, 
by closing its passage with the organs of speech, pro- 
ducing certain modifications of it, which we call articu- 
late sounds. As articulation is the distinguishing char- 
acteristic of the human voice, all the sounds we use in 
speaking are, by some grammarians, called articulate 
sounds. 

A letter is the sign of an articulate or vocal 
sound used in writing or printing. 

All the letters of a language arranged in the 
customary order, are called an alphabet. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 13 

Our alphabet contains twenty-six letters. 

These letters are divided into vowels and con- 
sonants. 

A vowel is a letter that represents a simple 
vocal sound ; as, a, e, i, o, u. 

A consonant is a letter that represents an artic- 
ulation of the voice ; as, b, c, d, f, g, h, j, h, I, m, 
n,p, 2, r, s, t, v, x,z. 

Consonants are subdivided into mutes and 
semi-vowels. 

A mute is a consonant that represents a sound 
produced by pressing the organs of speech so close 
together as to stop the passage of the voice; as, 
b, d, h, p, q, t, and c, and g hard. • 

A semi-vowel is a consonant that represents a 
sound produced by making the organs of speech 
touch each other so as not to stop the passage of 
the voice entirely; as, /, h, j, I, m, n, r, s, v, x, 
z, and c, and g soft. 

A diphthong is two vowels pronounced in one 
syllable; as, oi, oy, ou, and ow, in toil, toy, noun, 
now. 

A digraph is two vowels in a syllable one of 
which is silent; as, ai, ea, and oa, in rain, eat, 
oar. 

A triphthong is three vowels in one syllable ; 
as, uoy in buoy. 

A syllable is a sound either simple or complex 
uttered at a single impulse of the voice; as, a, 
arms, charms. 

A word is a syllable or combination of sylla- 
bles, uttered or written together as the sign of an 
idea, thought or feeling ; as, Listen, earth ! 

R. What is an elementary sound ? 



14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Dr. S. Ask Mr. Puzzle; he can tell you all about 
the elements and rudiments. 

R. 0, he puzzles us almost to death about them ev- 
ery day. He's Puzzle by name and puzzle by nature ; 
all his explanations are the darkest kind of puzzles ; 
the more he explains, the darker every thing appears. 

P. P. Take that, and that, and that, you saucy little 
rogue! I'll teach you better manners than to scandal- 
ize your teacher to his face in company. 

R O! O! O! O! O! O! 

P. P. Dr. Birch can make you understand the ele- 
mentary sounds, if I can't ; and repeat them too. He's 
very keen in his remarks; a shrill-voiced lecturer; a 
genuine quickener of thought ; persuasive, touching, 
and pathetic. 

P. Is an elementary sound ? 

P. P. Why, certainly : an elementary sound is a sim- 
ple vocal or articulate sound represented by a single 
letter. 

Dr. S. I must be allowed to take exceptions to your 
mode of teaching, and your definition. Skillful teach- 
ers now regard the ferule and the birch as relics of a 
barbarous age, degrading to their noble calling. If we 
had a perfect alphabet, it would contain as many letters 
as there are elementary sounds in our language. Every 
elementary sound would then be represented by a sin- 
gle letter, and no letter ever represent more than one 
sound ; for every elementary sound would have its ap- 
propriate sign or character to represent it, which, of 
course, would never represent any other sound. But 
we must take our alphabet and language as they are, 
and not as they should be, and adapt our definitions to 
them accordingly. The sounds of rig, sh, and th, are 
elementary, and have no single letters in our alphabet 
to represent them. X represents a complex sound, and 
is equivalent to ks, as in tax ; or gz, as in exist. So do 
g soft andj; being equivalent to dzh ; as in age, gem, 
jaw, adjure. C and q are unnecessary, because q has 
the sound of k, and c the sound of k, s, or z; as in 
queen, came, ceremony, suffice. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 15 

A has four sounds ; the long, the short, the broad, 
and the flat ; as in cane, can, ball, bar. 

JS^and i have each two sounds; the long and the 
short ; as in serene, merry, fine, fin. 

has three sounds ; the long, the short, and the slen- 
der ; as in robe, rob, prove. 

JJ has three sounds ; the long, the short, and the ob- 
tuse ; as in pure, pur, push. 

Your definition needs a little pruning. An element- 
ary sound is a simple vocal or articulate sound. 

P. P. My definition would be perfect, if we had a 
perfect alphabet. 

Dr. S. If we had one, neither you nor I would live 
to see it generally adopted. Will some of you repeat 
the elementary sounds? 

M. We have never learned them, Dr. Syntax. 

Dr. S. Why don't you teach them to your pupils, 
Mr. Puzzle? 

P. P. Because it is not customary in these parts. My 
teachers never taught them. So, to tell the plain truth, 
I can't repeat them all myself. 

Dr. S. What ! are you teaching grammar without a 
knowledge of the first principles ? Organize your class. 
We'll all repeat the elementary sounds in concert, and 
begin to study grammar at the beginning. To catch 
the sounds of all the vowels, we will first pronounce 
some words containing them ; then drop the consonants, 
and sound the vowels by themselves, thus.: 

All together. Fate, ate, a ; fat, at, a ; fall, all, a ; 
farm, arm, a. Me, e ; mend, end, e. File, ile, i ; fill, 
ill, i. Sold, old, o ; sod, od, o ; move, ove, o. Mute, 
mu, u,- pun, un, u; put, pu, u. Soil, oil, oi. Pound, 
pou, ou. 

Dr. S. On these few elementary vowel sounds that 
we have j ust repeated, all the vocality of our language 
depends. They constitute the whole volume of our 
vocal sounds. You cannot speak a single word or syl- 
lable without some of them. Articulation, or the joint- 
ing of our vocal sounds, depends upon the consonants. 

In the same manner we will now repeat the sounds 



16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

of tne consonants ; the mutes first ; then the semi- 
vowels. 

All. Bob, b ; did, d ; gag, g ; kick, k ; pap, p ; toot, t 
Fife, f ; ho, h ; lull, 1 ; maim, m ; nine, n ; sing, ng ; 
roar, r ; siss, s ; show, sh ; oath, th ; thy, th ; vow, v ; 
wo, w ; why, wh ; yaw, y ; breeze, z ; azure, zh. 

Dr. S. Here are presented, in a small compass, all the 
elementary sounds in our language. Eepeat them fre- 
quently, till you can pronounce them all correctly and 
fluently in all their combinations. Distinct and accu- 
rate articulation is a prime excellence in elocution. 
Never mumble, lisp, or mince your words ; nor trail, 
nor drawl them ; nor precipitate them, syllable over syl- 
lable, mixing them together in a mass of confusion. 
But let all your words be fitly spoken ; dropping from 
the lips as beautiful coins just issued from the mint; 
completely finished ; deeply and accurately impressed ; 
and neatly struck by the proper organs. Give to every 
syllable and letter its appropriate sound. Never say 
ed-e-cate, cal-ke-late, pr-vide, af-lict, at-empt, apeal, pres-e- 
dunt, tes-te-munt, prov-e-dunce, gov-ur-munt, &c, for edu- 
cate, calculate, provide, afflict, attempt, appeal, president, 
testament, providence, government. 

P. Does every letter always have a distinct sound ? 

Dr. S. There are some exceptions. In unaccented 
syllables the short sounds of the vowels are occasionally 
so obscure and feeble, as to be hardly distinguishable ; 
as in cedar,, cider, candor, murmur, zephyr, vial, shovel, 
symbol, sylvan, even, lion. Many of the elementary 
sounds that certain letters generally represent, are some- 
times represented by other letters, which are properly 
called their substitutes. 

Thus, e, ea, ei, ey, ai, au, ay, and aye, are occasionally 
substituted^for long a; as in tete, great, vein, obey, rain, 
gauge, day, aye: ai and ua, for short a; as in plaid, 
guaranty: o, oa, ou, eo, au, aw, and awe, for broad a ; 
as in for, broad, fought, georgic, fraud, saw, awe: e, ea, au, 
and ua, for flat a; as in sergeant, heart, haunt, guard: 
ea, ee, ei, eo, ey, ie, i, and y, for long e; as in seat, meet, 
receive, people, key, grief, machine, obloquy: ea, ei, eo, ie, 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 17 

u, ue, a, ai, and ay, for short e; as in death, heifer, leop- 
ard, friend, bury, guest, many, against, says: y, ai, ei, eye, 
ui, uy, ie, and ye, for long i; as in fly, aisle, height, eye- 
lid, guide, buy, lie, rye: e, o, u, y, ee, ei, ie, and ui, for 
short i ; as in pretty, women, busy, nymph, been, forfeit, 
sieve, guilt: eo, eau, ew, au, oa, oe, oo, ou, ow, owe, for 
long o; as in yeoman, beau, sew, hautboy, load, foe, door, 
court, bow, owe: a, au, ou, and ow, for short o ; as in 
what, laudanum, lough, knowledge: oe, oo, ou, wo, and 
oeu, for slender o ; as in shoe, food, group, two, manoeuver : 
ue, eu, ew, eau, ieu, and iew, for long u ; as in cue, feud, 
few, beauty, adieu, view : e, i, o, oe, oo, eo, ou, and eou, for 
short u ; as in her, bird, son, does, flood, dungeon, trouble, 
gorgeous : o, oo, and ou, for obtuse u ; as in wolf, wool, 
could: c for s, as in cent; d and g for j, as in soldier, 
giant; gh and^, iovf as in laugh, phrase ; c, g, ch and 
gh, for k, as in cat, queen, chorus, lough; ch, ce, ci, si and 
ti, for sh, as in chevalier, ocean, spacious, mansion, nation ; 
f and ph, for v, as in of, Stephen ; c, s and x, for z, as in 
sacrifice, rose, Xenophon ; and s and z, for zh, as in pleas- 
ure, azure. 

J. Why don't each letter al way have the same sound ? 

P. P. Because we have more elementary sounds than 
letters. 

J. Then why are half a dozen letters used to repre- 
sent the same sound ? 

P. P. Because it has been customary from time im- 
memorable: custom is the law of language. 

Dr. S. It has been aptly said that custom is the law 
of one sort of fools ; and fashion, of another. "Wise 
men learn from both ; but are not ruled by either. Like 
St. Paul, they prove all things, and hold fast that 
which is good. 

M. Why can't we have a perfect system of orthog- 
raphy ? 

Br. S. Because our spelling is controlled by custom, 
rather than by reason and analogy. Our words are there- 
fore very heterogeneous in orthography. Perfection in 
the arts and sciences consists in uniformity and regularity. 
In mathematics, every term, figure, sign, and symbol, 
2 



18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

has a uniform meaning ; and all the elementary princi- 
ples are combined with symmetrical regularity and 
beautiful gradation. Therefore, of all the arts and sci- 
ences, mathematics approaches the nearest to perfection. 
If we had a perfect alphabet, and every letter always 
represented the same sound, we might proceed with 
mathematical certainty and accuracy in the spelling and 
pronunciation of our words. But silent letters, substi- 
tutes, and letters having several different sounds, make 
it extremely difficult, if not impossible, for us to estab- 
lish any regular system of spelling and pronunciation. 
If we used our figures as we do our letters, representing 
several different numbers with the same figure, and then 
making several different figures represent the same 
number, and occasionally throwing in three or four dif- 
ferent figures, in a group, like silent letters, represent- 
ing nothing, who could ever learn arithmetic? 

R. What is the use of puzzling us to death with, 
silent letters, substitutes, and letters of uncertain sound? 
How can we ever learn to spell and pronounce all the 
words in our language? 

Dr. S. By patiently studying your spelling book and 
dictionary year after year. It now requires as many 
years to learn our spelling and pronunciation as it 
would require months, if we had a perfect alphabet of 
all our elementary sounds, and used it scientifically, as 
we do our figures. Then no silent letters would incum- 
ber language. But the printed page would be the 
perfect mirror of the human voice ; presenting to the 
eye the utterance of the tongue, and every letter be the 
symbol of a certain sound. 

M. Why can't we have a perfect alphabet? 

Dr. S. Because capricious custom has decided other- 
wise ; and such is her despotic power over weak minds, 
that no one can successfully appeal from her decision. 
We adhere to long-established usage with unthinking 
confidence, and follow in the footsteps of our literary 
fathers; copying their imperfections, follies, and mis- 
takes, with all the filial veneration of the honest Dutch- 
man, who carried his grist to mill in one end of the 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 19 

sack with, a stone to balance it in the other, as it is 
facetiously reported, because his father and his grand- 
father had always done so before him. Our incum- 
brance is still greater and more grievous to be borne 
than his. The dead weight of silent letters, substi- 
tutes, and letters of uncertain sound, is more than 
half the burden that the memory has to carry while we 
learn to spell and read. I have prepared an alphabet 
of all the. elementary sounds in our language, with but 
little hopes of seeing it adopted. 

M. You ought to introduce it into all our schools, 
emancipate our literature, and free the youthful mind 
from useless drudgery. 

Dr. S. If I undertake to introduce it, I expect to be 
denounced by teachers as a visionary projector, and to 
fare no better than the reckless Yankee innovator, when 
he showed the plodding Dutchman how to balance his 
grist without the stone. Poor Hans, as we are told, was 
filled with wrath to see this ancient family relic cast 
aside and treated with contempt. So, showering curses 
on his benefactor, he eschews all Yankee notions, put 
the stone into his sack again, and mill-ward plods his 
weary way. 

You laugh — 'tis well — the tale applied 
May make you laugh on t' other side. 

The Dutch may laugh at us for our stupidity in spell- 
ing : their language has not such a load of substitutes 
and silent letters as incumbers ours. 

P. P. I should like to see you make my little dunces 
learn the elementary sounds. 

Dr. S. These bright-eyed little fellows look too smart 
for dunces. 

P. P. 0, they are smart enough in mischief, I assure 
you, sir : they're lively fellows, full of fun and every 
roguish trick imaginable. They can leam a funny song 
or story, if they hear it three or four times. They are 
prone to evil. But to keep their eyes upon their books 
and learn their letters, there's the rub — and yet the 
little urchins can repeat them up and down the alpha- 



20 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

bet as fast as I can, when they don't know half of them 
by sight. 

Dr. S. How long have they attended school ? 

P. P. About three months. 

Dr. S. Three months ! They ought to learn their 
letters and the elementary sounds in three weeks, if 
properly instructed. 

P. P. Take them under your tuition then, and see 
what you can make of them. 

Dr. S. Come here, my lads ; I have something new 
and curious to show you. Can you speak without open- 
ing your mouth ? Try it, and see. 

David. B — d — 1 — m. No, sir : not a word. 

Dr. S. Well, here are all the mouth-openers in our 
language. They are printed on these little cards in 
beautiful red letters. Would you like to see them ? 

All. Yes, sir; yes, yes, yes. Dr. Syntax, let us see 
them. 

Dr. S. What is that? ISf a. 

All. A. 

Dr. S. What is this? ISpa. Look sharp. 

Henry. It is a, with a strait mark over it. 

Dr. S. You are right exactly, Henry. This is long a; 
and the other one is short a. 

H. It don't look any longer than the other one. 

Dr. S. Its sound is what I mean. It has a long sound, 
as in hate, ate, a. The other has a short sound, as in 
hat, at, a. Now repeat these sounds of a, all of you to- 
gether, just as I do. 

All. Cape, ape, a; cap, ap, a-; a, a; a, a; a, a; a, a. 

Dr. S. What is that ? S3T* a, 

Edward. It is a, with a slanting mark over it. 

Dr. S. What is this ? tW a. 

M It is a, with two dots over it. 

Dr. S. This we call broad a, because it has a broad 
sound, as in ball, all, a. The other one we call flat a, 
because it has a flat sound, as in farm, arm, a. Eepeat 
the sounds of a in concert. 

All. Call, all, a; cart, art, a; a, a; a, a; a, a; a, a, 
a, a ; a, a, a, a ; a, a. a. a. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 2% 

Dr. & What is this? EST* e. 

All E. 

Dr.S. What is this? fe§T §. 

D. It is e, with a straight mark over it. 

Dr. S. This is called long e, because it has a long 
sound, as in mete, ete, e. The other one is called short e t 
because it has a short sound, as in met, et, e. Now all 
of you repeat the sounds of e and a in concert. , 

All Feel, eel, e; fell, ell, e ; e, e; e, e; e, e: a, a*, 
a, k ; e, e : a, a, a, a ; e, e : a, a , a, a ; e, e. 

Dr. & What is that ? ^T i. 

JK It is*. 

_Dr. S. What is this ? $g§T T. 

Z>. It is i, with a straight mark over it. 

Dr. S. We call this long i, because it has a long 
sound, as in pine, pi, i ; and the other one we call short i, 
because it has a short soun,d, as in^m, in, i. Eepeat 
the sounds of i in concert ; then repeat the sounds of 
a, e and i. 

All. Mite, it, I; mit, it, i: I, i; T, i; T, i: a, a, a, a; 
e, e ; I, i : a, a, a, a ; e, e ; T, i : a, a, a, a; e, e ; I, i. 

Dr. & What is that round letter ? |^" o. 

All O. 

Dr. & What is this ? [gIP o ; and that? ^W~ 6. 

H. This is o, with a straight mark over it, and that 
is o, with two dots over it. 

Dr. S. This is called long o, because it has a long 
sound, as in mode, ode, o. That is called short o, be- 
cause it has a short sound, as in mob, ob, o. That is 
called slender o, because it has a slender sound, as in 
to, o. Repeat the sounds of o, and then the sounds of 
a, e, i and o. 

All Note, ote, o ; not, ot, o ; do, 6 : o, o, 6 ; o, o, o ; 
6, o, 6 : a, a, a, a : e, e ; I, i ; 6, o, o : a, a, a, a ; e, e ; 
I, i ; 6, o, 6 : a, a, a, a ; e, e ; T, i ; o, o, 6. 

Dr. S. What are these ? Jg^~ ii, u, ii. 

E. That is u. 

H. This is u, with a straight mark over it, and that 
is u, with two dots over it. 

Dr. S. This is called long u, because it has a long 



22 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

sound, as in fume, fu, u. That is called short u, because 
it has a short sound, as in cup, up, u. This we call ob- 
tuse u, because it has an obtuse or dull sound, as in 
puss, pit, ii. 

R. Don't obtuse u have the sound of oo ? 

Dr. S. Yes, it has the short sound of oo, as in put, 
foot, pull, wool. The long sound of oo is the same as 
that of slender o, as in tool, too, to, lose, loose, loo. Now 
follow me in concert, Sound each letter just as I do, 
all of you together. 

All. Pure, pu, u; pun, un, u; push, usb, ii: ii, u, ii; 
u, u, ii; ii, u, ii: a, a, a, a; e, e; 1, i; 0,0,0; u, u, ii: 
a, a, a, a ; e, e ; T, i ; o, o, 6 ; ii, u, ii : a, a, ii, a ; e, e ; 
1, i ; o, o, ; u, u, ii. 

Dr. S. You don't get all the sounds of u exactly- 
right, especially the obtuse sound. You grunt it out 
like little pigs. Try again. 

All. Cure, cu, u; cut, ut, u; bush, iish, ii; ii, ii, ii; 
bush, bii, ii, ii, ii, ii ; ii, u, ii ; u, u, ii ; ii, u, ii ; u, u, ii. 

Dr. S. That will do. Can any of you utter any of 
ihese sounds without opening the mouth ? Try them, 
and see. 

H. Let me see : a, a, a, a ; e, e ; I, i ; 0,0,0; ii, u, ii. 
No, sir. 

Dr. S. Well done ! You have repeated all our vowel 
sounds. We call them vowel sounds, because they are 
purely vocal ; flowing from an open mouth, and passing 
freely from the lungs, uninterrupted by the organs of 
speech. The letters used to represent these sounds in 
books, a, e, i, 0, and u, are called vowels. So, you see, 
we have five vowels and fourteen vowel sounds, be- 
sides the dipthongal sounds of oi and ou. A has four 
sounds, e two, 1 two, three, and u three. 

J. Can we talk without shutting the mouth ? 

Dr. S. We can utter single sounds. But it would be 
extremely difficult to utter sentences or words of sev- 
eral syllables, with open vowels constantly succeeding 
one another, and no articulations intervening. Fluency 
and ease require a proper intermixture of articulate 
and vocal sounds. Articulations are the joints that 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 23 

frame our vocal sounds together into words and sen- 
tences. The letters used to represent them we call 
consonants. In pronouncing them, we bring the organs 
of speech together so as to stop the passage of the voice : 
we shut the mouth. Can you sound any letter in our 
alphabet, except a, e, i, o and u, without shutting the 
mouth ? 

M B, c, d, f, g, h, j, k, 1, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, w, x, 
y, z. No, sir. 

P. P. Do we shut the mouth in sounding r ? 

Dr. S. We bring the tongue against the roof of the 
mouth, so as to stop the voice from passing freely, as 
you all can see by trying it. 

II. R, r, r, r. Dr. Syntax, you're exactly right, and 
Mr. Puzzle is mistaken. 

Dr. S. Do you hear that, Mr. Puzzle? Never call 
these young philosophers, dunces anymore. They'll 
go ahead of you and me in education yet. 

P. Are not w and y sometimes vowels? 

Dr. jS. Yes, occasionally ; but then they are only 
substitutes for u and i; w having the sound of u, and y 
the sound of i. You have done so well, my noble lads, 
that we will entertain you with a little musio. Mary 
has composed a tune containing all our elementary 
sounds, which she will sing before us. All of you 
that wish to tune your voices are invited to sing with 
her. 

M. ! say, can you see by the dawn's early light, 

What, so proully we hailed at the twilight's last gleaming, 
Whose broad stripes and bright stars through the perilious fi^ht, 

O'er the ramparts we watched were so gallantly streaming? 
And the rocket's red glare, the bombs bursting in air, 
Gave proof through the night that our flag was still there! 
say, does the star-spangled banner still wave, 
O'er the land of the free, and the home of the brave ? 

On the shore dimly seen through the mists of the deep, 

Where the foe's haughty hosts in dread silence reposes, 
What is that which the breeze o'er the towering steep, 

As it fitfully blows, half cjnceals, half discloses ? 
Now it catches the gleam of the morning's first beam, 
In full glory reflected, now shines on the stream ! 
'Tis the star spangled banner ! ! long may it wave 
O'er the land of the free, and the home of the brave! 



24: ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

And where is that band who so vauntingly swore, 

That the havoc of war and the battle's confusion, 
A home and a country should leave us no more ? 

Their blood has washed out their foul footstep's pollution. 
No refuge can save the hireling and slave, 
From the terror of flight, and the gloom of the grave : 
And the star-spangled banner in triumph shall wave, 
O'er the land of the free, and the home of the brave ! 

Oh ! thus be it ever when freemen shall stand 

Between their loved home and the war's desolation ; 
Blest with victory and peace, may the heaven-rescued land, 

Praise the Power that hath made and preserved us a nation. 
Then conquer we must, when our cause it is just ; 
And this be our motto : " In God is our trust !" 
And the star-spangled banner in triumph shall wave 
O'er the land of the free, and the home of the brave ! 

Dr. S. Can you sing this tune without the words, and 
use the elementary sounds instead of them. 

M. I can try, sir. [She sings.] 

P. P. What a charming tune you have composed 
out of our dry tedious elementary sounds. I never 
thought they could be made so musical. 

M. No instrumental sounds can be compared with 
them. They are the sweetest sounds that art or na- 
ture can produce. What is more musical than the 
human voice ? This tune comprises all the sounds our 
sweetest minstrels use. 

S. Can you play this tune on your melodeon ? 

M. Yes. Listen. These are instrumental sounds. 
No instrument can make articulate or vocal sounds. 

R. What an excellent melodeon ! Who made it? 

M. I never saw one made. Perhaps it came to- 
gether of its own accord and made itself, according to 
the theory of some great philosophers who hold that 
all things were produced by chance. 

JR. Such a thing could never happen. It requires a 
skillful workman to construct an instrument like this, 
and a great musician to invent it. 

M. Does a melodeon require more skill to make it 
than is required to make a living, breathing, moving, 
seeing, feeling, thinking, reasoning, and speaking in- 
strument ? 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 25 

B. Who ever heard of such an instrument? No- 
body in the world can make one. 

Dr. S. Every one of us is such an instrument: we 
are fearfully and wonderfully made ; and yet, how sel- 
dom do we think, " The hand that made us is divine." 
Everything around us and within us, shows the handi- 
work of our infinitely wise and benevolent Creator, 
the -perfect design and exquisite skill of the Divine 
Architect. What beautiful adaptation and harmony of 
mind and matter ! of animate and inanimate nature ! 
He garnishes the heavens above, and clothes the earth 
with beauty : giving all our senses their appropriate 
delights. He paints the flowers with all varieties 
of colors, pervades the fruits with rich delicious fla- 
vors ; fills the air with sweet harmonious sounds and 
fragrant odors ; mirrors in our minds the outer world 
refined and purified to suit the mental faculties : crea- 
ting, as it were, a new heaven and earth for intellectual 
vision. As a crowning excellence, he has endowed us 
with speech to communicate this bright creation to the 
minds of others ; making language the telegraph of 
thought, the mirror of the mind, the great repository of 
all knowledge, human and divine ! and yet, " The fool 
hath said in his heart, there is no God ;" and all his 
wonderful works were made by chance ! What a piece 
of mechanism are the organs of speech ! What a won- 
derful contrivance is the human voice, which with a few 
elementary sounds variously combined and modulated, 
can express the thoughts and sentiments of all man- 
kind ! It is the climax of creative skill, converting 
fleeting breath into intelligible words and sentences, 
and making out of empty air "a monument more dura- 
ble than brass," the beautiful fabric of language radiant 
with thought, the temple of truth, the light-house of 
the mental world ! 



Mysterious structure fair and grand ! 

Great medium between 
The earthly and the spirit land, 

The seen and the unseen ! - 



26 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

. Eternal Wisdom's temple bright, 
Where deathless spirits meet, 
Diffusing intellectual light, 
With sparkling gems replete ! 

Reared on " this hank and shoal cf time," 

Yet holding all the past 
And future, spacious and sublime, 

Magnificent and vast ! 

Extending through all time and space, 

As far as thought can soar, 
Sweet Fancy's fairy footsteps trace, 

Or nature's work explore. 

Preserving Virtue's, Science', Art's, 

And Nature's previous treasures, 
The fond affections of our hearts, 

And all our social pleasures. 

Language is a standing miracle, the crowning wonder 
of creation. What consurnate skill and wonderful 
contrivance it reveals ! Can all the artificial mechan- 
ism in the world, compare with what is necessary to 
produce it; the exquisite workmanship, and perfect 
adaptation of the organs of sensation and perception to 
each other, to external objects, and our mental facul- 
ties ? What excellent design and admirable skill, and 
what continual concert of action are displayed by each 
particular organ, in conveying to the mind impressions 
of external objects, and producing feelings, ideas, and 
thoughts ! by all the mental faculties in receiving and 
retaining, combining and arranging them, before they 
are committed to the .organs of speech to give them 
utterance and frame them into words and sentences ! 
What a piece of work it is ! bright emanation of celes- 
tial thought! how wide its range! how excellent its 
"uses ! how sublime its end and aim ! Without it how 
could human society subsist, or man receive the light 
of revelation ? Has it not the impress of the hand 
divine ? And yet " the fool hath said in his heart, 
There is no God." To disbelieve there is a God, is 
to believe still greater mysteries. We might as well 
believe a house could build itself, a poem come to- 
gether of its own accord, a speech be made without a 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 27 

speaker, or a song be sung without a singer. O the 
blind insane credulity of infidelity ! Why, every word 
the atheist utters is a greater miracle (if we admit his 
creed) than the miracles that he denies; exhibiting a 
thinking, speaking being, made by senseless, dumb, 
unthinking matter, set in order by old Chaos, and en- 
lightened by eternal Night ! 

P. P. Pardon me for interrupting your discourse: 
the time has come for me to close my school. 

" Time conquers all, and we must time obey." 

Dr. S. Then I must bid my little friends good even- 
ing. Come to-morrow morning early, all of you, and 
we will have a friendly chat about the parts of speech. 
I love to talk with children, and listen to the voice of 
Nature uttering through them her pure philosophy, to 
hear the artless words of truth and candor, and to 
treasure up the precious gems of unsophisticated 
thought. Your pleasant looks and merry voices cheer 
my age, renew the pleasures of my boyish days, and 
bring back, fresh and warm, the joys I knew before 
declining years had sprinkled snow upon my head, and 
chilled my heart with sorrow. You revive the sweet 
remembrance of my school-mates and the dear compan- 
ions of my childhood, who have fallen asleep. "Suf- 
fer little children to come unto me, and forbid them 
not: for of such is the kingdom of heaven."' 

Sweet recollections of the past 

Come thronging up, bright, pure, and chaste : 

I see again, in youthful bloom, 

Dear friends now moldering in the tomb; 

I hear each kind, familiar voice, 

And in their company rejoice ; 

Our favorite sonars again are sung ; 

We range the fields where I was young ; 

Admire the bow that spans the sky, 

And chase the gilded butterfly ; 

Or, seated by the murmuring brook, 

In some cool, fragrant, shady nook, 

We while away the noontide hours 

In making nosegays of sweet flowers ; 

Glide o'er the lake in our good boat, 

Or on its tranquil surface float. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

I see myself again a child, 
As, mirrored in the lake, I smiled 
To see our pictures painted there 
By Nature's hand, so bright and fair. 
The scenes of childhood, (quickly past,) 
On memory's page forever last. 



CONVERSATION SECOND. 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

Dr. S. Good morning, children. I am glad to see so 
many of you here so early. Have yon come to study 
grammar? 

J. We have come to hear you talk about the parts 
of speech. 

Dr. S. Why, here are my little ABC friends, too ! 
What made you come to school so early ? 

U. So eariy ! We 've been waiting for you half an 
hour. 

Dr. S. You are real little wide-awakes. Excuse my 
tardiness. I'm not so spry as you are. I am growing 
old ; and you are young and smart. 

P. P. Such little boys might better be at home till 
school time. You will only make disturbance. How 
can you learn grammar? Go right home and wait till 
nine o'clock. It is but little after seven. 

M Do let us stay, and hear the good old doctor talk 
about the parts of speech. We '11 be as still as mice. 

Dr. & Let them stay. I '11 be responsible for their 
behavior. They may catch a bright idea now and 
then, that will be useful to them in their future studies. 
They are not so dull as you suppose. I want to try 
experiments on them, and let you know that some 
things can be done as well as others. 

P. What shall we study grammar in ? 

Dr. & The book of nature. 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 29 

P. Then let us go into the summer house beyond 
this flower garden on that little hill, where we can see 
the brightest page in Nature's book, spread out in all 
directions as far as the eye can reach, and hear her 
little warblers sweetly singmg all around us. 

Dr. S. This is a very pleasant place to study in, 
with seats enough for all of us conveniently arranged. 
What delightful scenery! What a charming land- 
scape ! 

P. P. Where can we have a finer view of nature, or 
of art? 

Dr. S. There is a landscape far more beautiful than 
this, illuminated by the Sun of Eighteousness ; the 
landscape of the mind, where pure ideas, holy thoughts, 
and sweet affections grow, and bloom throughout the 
year ; those bright celestial flowers of Paradise that 
never wither, droop, nor fade ; but, every day, become 
still more and more beautiful. The gold and the crys- 
tal cannot equal them : and the exchange of them shall 
not be for jewels of fine gold. No mention shall be 
made of coral or of pearls : for the price of wisdom 
is above rubies. The vulture's eye has never seen 
them : for they are invisible except to mental vision 
through the medium of language ; where they bloom 
and flourish, pass from mind to mind, and, like the 
widow's oil, though freely used and given away to 
others, grow no less, but constantly increase : the more 
of them give, the more we have. 

What shall I say of language ? How can I describe 
it ? or with what can I compare it ? Language is the 
mental atmosphere, the vital air that sympathetic 
social spirits breathe; vibrating with sensation, feeling, 
passion, thought, intelligence and reason ; bright em- 
bodiment of knowledge, shedding intellectual light on 
all from age to age, and yet increasing in its brightness ; 
having power " to fill the ear, the eye, the inmost soul, 
with -sounds and images, and holy visions of beauty 
and grandeur, to charm, to fascinate, to win, to arouse, 
to calm, to terrify, to overwhelm." It rules the mental 
world ; transfuses into us the thoughts and feelings of 



30 ENGLISH GEAMMAK 

the master spirits of all ages ; touches every secret 
spring of action, and controls our very thoughts. It 
gains the only true and lasting conquests ; those of 
knowledge over ignorance, of virtue over vice, of free- 
dom over, tyranny, of truth and justice over error and 
iniquity. To blast and utterly destroy the power of 
tyrants, reason, with the aid of language, is more po- 
tent than powder; truth's winged words are more effect- 
ual than shot and shell ; the pen is mightier than the 
sword ; and freedom of the pulpit, of the press, and of 
speech, more terrible than an army with banners. 
Mysterious art! gift divine! that treasures up, 
embodies, and embalms, the thoughts, ideas, and feelings 
of the human race ! connects and binds together in 
eternal fellowship, the present, past, and future genera- 
tions! Sweet incarnation of celestial thought, that 
stamps us with the seal of immortality ! bright ever- 
during monument of fleeting breath and fragile paper, 
that outlasts Egyptian pyramids! preserving all the 
works of genius, and immortalizing all the noble 
thoughts, and deeds, and words of mortal men ! in- 
scribing them on the bright pages of glory, honor, and 
renown ; and branding the ignoble with shame and 
everlasting contempt in the long-living annals of in- 
famy, to check the daring deeds of desperate men ! 

Ethereal forms, winged words ! 

Swift couriers of air ! 
Carriers of thought, sweet singing birds ! 

What messages ye bear ! 

Bright emanations of His light, 

Whose wisdom thought bestowed ; 
Whose copious floods of glory bright, 

O'er Nature's face have flowed, 

And, mirrored in each glowing page 

Of inspiration, shine ! 
Ye never can grow dim with age, 

Symbols of thought divine ! 

Sweet voices of departed years, 

Embalmed in deathless story ! 
Preserving all that life endears, 

Our fair renown and glory. 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 31 

Affection's gleam, and friendship's ray, 

The beaming light of truth ; 
That shines on age's wintry way, 

And gilds the paths of youth. 

Sweet voices of the illustrious dead, 

In distant ages spoken ; 
Till reason, thought, and sense are fled, 

Your charm cannot be broken. 

JR. What a splendid view we have on every side as 
far as we can see ! What beautiful houses, gardens, 
orchards, fields, and groves ! 

Dr. S. Who owns this flower garden and that splen- 
did house ? 

M. As kind, and generous, and noble-hearted gentle- 
man as ever lived. 

Dr. S. How do you know all this about him, Mary? 
Have you ever seen his heart? 

M. O .no ! I know it by what he has done. He 
is so good to me and all my schoolmates, and to every- 
body. He employs the poor folks in the neighborhood, 
to plant and cultivate all sorts of flowers and fruit trees 
in his gardens and his orchards, pays them liberally for 
their work, and lets us gather all the flowers and fruit 
we want for nothing. Besides all this he gives us a 
great many fine books and clothes. When any of his 
tenants or their families are sick, or have bad luck, he 
gives them all they need to make them comfortable. 
Last year, when I was sick he sent me ever so many 
nice presents, and a very kind affectionate letter closing 
with these beautiful lines : 

Without a vain, without a grudging heart, 
To Him who gives us all I yield a part. 

So I know he is a noble-hearted Christian. He supplies 
our Sunday Schools with books, and pays for educating 
poor orphan children in this beautiful asylum, which 
was built at his expense and called the "Orphan's 
Home." 

Dr. S. This fine house in the flower garden ? 

M. Yes, sir: this is the "Orphan's Home." He 
helped build all the school-houses and churches that 



32 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

you see, and all those splendid college buildings on 
that hill, and gave five hundred thousand dollars as a 
permanent endowment. 

Br. 8. Thrice happy man ! enabled to pursue 

What many wish, but want the power to do. 

As much as I admire the works of art and nature, I 
admire the moral grandeur of a good and virtuous mind 
still more. No other species of sublimity or beauty 
equals that of the moral, sublime or beautiful. It adds 
a secret charm to every object in this landscape, to 
reflect that all this vast estate belongs to so benevolent 
a man, who holds it as the faithful minister of bounte- 
ous Providence. To me the beauty of the finest land- 
scape is less pleasing than the beauty of holiness. So, 
all the works of nature look more beautiful, when, 
with the eye of faith, we see divine benevolence and 
wisdom shining through them, and adore our great 
Creator as a sympathizing friend, from whom we have 
received every good and perfect'gift. Look around you, 
and reflect how small a part of what you see was made 
by man. 

J. Man made the buildings, fences, carriages, and 
roads. 

Dr. S. Yes, but who made the timber, iron ore, stones, 
sand, and clay, for man to work with ? Who spread 
out this soft carpet of green grass beneath our feet? 
"Who made these fragrant flowers, so beautiful in form 
and color? Who clothed these plants and trees with 
green leaves, and adorned them with sweet blossoms? 
Who arrayed these fields with waving grain to furnish 
us with bread? Who made these little birds that fill 
the air with music? and the cattle on a thousand 
hills ? Who spread the heavens above, and made the 
stars and planets shining there? Who made the sun, 
and sent him on his journey from the chambers of the 
east to cheer and gladden every living thing, with 
genial light and heat? 

M. Our father made them all. 

Dr. S. It is beyond the power of mortals to create a 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 33 

particle of matter, or a single thought, idea, or feeling. 
All that we can do, is, to rekindle, mold and fashion, 
put together and arrange, what is already in existence. 
No human skill can give to senseless, inorganic matter, 
animal or vegetable life, much less sensation, thought, 
intelligence, or reason ; nor can any human knowledge 
fully comprehend its essence, or connection with organic 
matter. Though the plastic hand of art can make 
good imitations of the works of nature ; copying all 
her handiwork, her fairest forms and brightest colors ; 
yet no mortal man can make a living creature, either 
animal or vegetable, or vivify the dead. Who, but 
the Lord of life and glory, can produce a butterfly or 
rose, a creeping worm, a blade of grass, or one poor 
grain of corn ? Though Art ascend above the clouds, 
and search the blue ethereal vault to matter's utmost 
bounds, or dive into the bosom of the earth or ocean, 
and explore the hidden mysteries of the deep — though 
star-eyed science wander through all space, and look the 
properties of matter through and through, "yet where 
can wisdom be found ? and where is the place of un- 
derstanding ? There is a spirit in man, and the inspira- 
tion of the Almighty giveth him understanding." His 
creative wisdom, power, and goodness are not thrown 
away upon dead matter, which cannot enjoy the pleas- 
ures of existence ; nor confined to man. His infinite 
benevolence has rilled the universe with living crea- 
tures having organs of sensation and perception ; con- 
scious, of existence, and rejoicing in his goodness : 
every part of matter swarms with sentient creatures 
that communicate their feelings to each other. 

See through this air, this ocean, and this earth, 
All matter quick, and bursting into birth. 
Above, how high progressive life may go ! 
Around, how wide ! how deep extend below ! 
Vast chain of being! which from God begaD, 
Natures ethereal, human, angel, man, 
Beast, bird, fish, insect, what no eye can see, 
No glass can reach ; from infinite to thee ; 
From thee to nothing. 

The visible creation is divinely fair; but the bright 



34 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

worlds of life and thought contain diviner wonders still. 
The material world is but the shell of the universe, the 
mere substratum of sensation, thought, intelligence, and 
reason : serving as the basis and support of sentient, 
thinking, intelligent, and reasoning beings; for whose 
sake alone matter is valuable, and for whose enjoyment 
it appears to have been created. All things pleasing, 
beautiful, and grand, were made for them. Would our 
benevolent Creator pour out such magnificence and 
beauty to no purpose? Would he paint the morning 
and the evening sky so beautifully, and adorn each 
landscape with so many pleasing objects, if there were 
no sensitive beings to perceive their beauty and enjoy it? 

P. P. Full many a gem of purest ray serene, 

The dark unfathomed caves of ocean bear : 
Full many a flower is born to blush unseen, 
And waste its sweetness on the desert air. 

Dr. S. Yes : unseen by man, but seen by other creat- 
ures for whose happiness the Lord provides. Are not 
his tender mercies over all his works ? Does man alone 
enjoy the beauty and the grandeur of creation? The 
wildest deserts and the deepest caverns in the ocean 
swarm with joyful sentient creatures. Look, and see 
what countless multitudes are sporting in the sun- 
beams all around us. See those merry robins singing 
in the trees, and see those little busy bees and gilded 
butterflies among the flowers. Have they no pleasure 
in beholding the bright morning sun, and this delicious 
landscape clothed with verdure and beauty ? Are not 
the sun-beams and the flowers, the beauty of the earth 
and the splendor of the sky, as sweet to them as you? 
Ten thousand voices answer yes, as they unite in sing- 
ing Nature's universal morning hymn. Sweet voices 
blend with coarser ones in concert, from the lark's and 
nightingale's down to the hoarse, rough voices of the 
cawing crow and eroaking frog, and upward through 
all animated nature to the sweet seraphic music of the 
heavenly hosts, unheard by our dull ears. " Let every 
thing that hath breath praise the Lord." Would crea- 
tion be complete, if all these living creatures, destitute 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 35 

of language, moved about in solemn silence? Is not 
language nature's crowning ornament, our Maker's last, 
best gift? What a peculiar charm is added to the 
beauty of this landscape by the music of the birds ! 

P. Have beasts and birds a language, then ? 

Dr. S. Yes ; everything that breathes. 

I. What is language ? 

Dr. S. Language is the medium through which, 
ideas, thoughts and feelings are communicated. 

R. Can horses, sheep, and cattle, cats and dogs, hens, 
geese, and turkeys, understand each other ? 

Dr. S. Yes ; as well as we can understand each other, 
and, perhaps, a little better. See that hen with her 
fine brood of chickens. Hear her call them, when she 
has found something good for them to eat ; and hear 
her warn them of their danger, when the hawk ap- 
proaches. See how quick they understand her, and 
obey her. O ! that all these little boys and girls could 
understand and mind their mothers half as quick! 

W. How many parts of speech have they ? 

Dr. S. But one, as far as we can ascertain. 

W. But one ! (O, then they need no grammars !) 
What is that? 

Dr. S. Such as all of us begin with in our infancy, 
before we learn to talk. 

R. Nouns or verbs ? 

Dr. S. It is a part of speech that nature teaches every 
man, woman, and child ; consisting of short, simple 
words abruptly uttered when our feelings are excited, 
frequently before we think of speaking ; the simplest 
vocal sounds that children use, before they can articu- 
late their brothers' or their sisters' names, or understand 
their own names, or say pa or ma. 

W. I can't exactly understand you, Dr. Syntax. 

Dr. jS. Then learn of that little baby yonder in the 
garden with its mother. It appears to be delighted 
with the flowers. Listen, and repeat the words it 
utters. 



36 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

W. 0, pshaw ! That little child can't teach me 
grammar. 

R It says, ! ! eh ! eh ! ha ! ha ! ha ! 

Dr. S. Well done, Edward ! you will beat these old 
grammarians yet. We call ! eh ! and ha ! exclama- 
tions. 

An exclamation is a word abruptly uttered to 
express a strong or sudden impulse of feeling. 

W. Mr. Puzzle calls such words interjections. I 
used two of them just now without thinking of it. 

Dr. S. Exclamations are a sort of natural language, 
which we have in common with the brute creation ; un- 
derstood alike by all mankind, by wild, untutored sav- 
ages, as well as polished citizens ; the first crude words we 
utter in our childhood, and the last that tremble on the 
lips of weak, decaying age, expressing joy and sorrow, 
pleasure, pain, and every other feeling, passion, or emo- 
tion. Even inarticulate cries, groans, shrieks, screams, 
shouts, and yells, and vocal imitations of the sounds 
made by .animals and inanimate things, are exclama- 
tions. See those children playing in the garden : hear 
them shout and scream, to give expression to their 
feelings. 

M. I never saw such exclamations as they use, in 
any book. Could anybody write such words, or print 
them ? Who could ever spell them ? 

Dr. S. We might as well attempt to write or print 
the music of the birds. 

P. P. Your grammar class is rather noisy, Dr. Syn- 
tax. Let me call the school to order. Silence ! Take 
your seats, and be so still that you can hear me drop 
this pin. Hush ! hark ! listen ! hold your . 

E. Hurrah ! Let her drop : we're all as still as mice 

All. Te he ! te he ! he ! he : ha ! ha ! ha ! ha ! ho ! 
ho ! ho ! ho ! 

P. P. I'll make you laugh on t' other side, and dance 
to a livelier tune than Yankee-doodle. [Flourishing 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 37 

the birch significantly, and striking to the right and 
left promiscuously.] You provoking, noisy, saucy, ill- 
bred, little urchins ! 

All. Switch ! switch ! switch ! Oh ! oh ! boohoo ! 
boohoo ! whew ! bah ! uh ! uh ! mew ! bow wow ow ! 
caw ! caw ! tu hoo ! tu hoo ! tu hoo ! hoo ! hoo ! quit !. 
quit ! quit ! cookadoodledoo ! 

P. P. ! you're enough to spoil the temper of s- 
saint, and make a common teacher crazy ! Satan would 
have had the mastery of Job himself, if he had set him 
to teaching such a school as this to earn his daily bread, 
instead of smiting him with boils. 

Dr. S. My good friend Peter, you're too hasty for a 
school-master, too passionate entirely, " sudden and 
quick in quarrel." There's a better way to govern. 
Gentleness is mightier than force : a gentle hand can 
lead the elephant himself by a single hair. It is, how- 
ever, an ill wind that blows nobody any good. This 
whirlwind has produced a good supply of exclamations. 
I will now repeat a little poetry containing exclama- 
tions. Give me your attention, so that you can pick 
out every one of them. 

E'en now familiar, as in life, he came, 

Alas ! how different ! yet how like the same ! 

P. Alas! 

Lo ! a form divinely bright 
Descends, and bursts upon my sight ! 

W. Lo! 

Tweet ! tweet ! the birds all cried ; 
Sweet ! sweet ! John's wife replied. 

B. Tweet! tweet! sweet! sweet! 

Ah ! there's the old doctor with powders and pills, 

S. Ah! 

To ease all our pains, and to cure all our ills ; 

So clever and kind, so polite and so civil : 

He'll quickly extract the root of all evil. 

His vials cry chink ! chink I chink ! chink ! as they clash 

J. Chink! chink! chink! chink! 



88 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

In emptiness together, chink ! chink ! cash ! cash ! 

& Chink ! chink ! cash ! cash ! 

This cleanses the blood, and this strengthens the back, 
This settles the stomach, says he— Quack ! quack ! quack I 

E. Quack ! quack ! quack ! 

Some hard-drinking ducks in a puddle hard bj, 

With clamorous voices, most rudely reply. 

Tut ! tut ! says the doctor ; shoo ! shoo ! hush ! be still, 

H. Tut! tut! shoo! shoo! hush! 

You foul-mouthed defamers, deriding my skill. 

P. ! see those splendid clouds piled up among the 
mountains in the western sky. They look like fairy 
palaces and golden towers, for happy spirits to ascend 
from earth to Heaven. O ! see them mirrored in this 
little lake, a thousand fathoms down ! 

I. This lake is Nature's looking glass. 

Dr. S. She has a better one than this, reflecting all 
external objects, sounds as well as forms and colors, 
also odors, tastes, and feelings ; making bright, endur- 
ing pictures, that we all can see by night as well as 
day. She keeps them in her picture-gallery for us to 
look at when we please. They are the only pictures 
that the blind can see. 

Oliver. Why, Dr. Syntax ! what a riddle ! 
. Dr. S. It's something of a riddle ; can't you guess it? 

M. I see ! I see ! I see exactly what you mean. 

B. How can you see when you are blind? 

M. With the mind's ej^e, Robert. Nature's mirror 
is the human mind ; the pictures that the blind can see 
are called ideas ; and her picture-gallery is the memory. 
These are the only pictures I have seen since I lost my 
sight a year ago. Around me all is dark ; but there is 
light within that shines in darkness ; and my spirit sees 
still brighter visions than before. I see my friends no 
more, except in dreams by night, and reveries by day. 
No more can I look round upon the charming landscapes 
of this beautiful green earth, or up into the smiling 
face and sparkling eyes of the sweet heavens. But the 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 39 

images of all that I have seen are treasured in my 
memory ; and I can see them yet as bright as ever. 

Dr. S. It is the mind that sees : our eyes are but the 
windows of the soul, through which we look on out- 
ward objects. Through the medium of our senses 
mind and matter come in contact, and ideas, thoughts, 
and feelings are produced. When you take into your 
hand a piece of ice, the mind receives the ideas of cold- 
ness, hardness, smoothness, shape, length, breadth, and 
thickness, through the sense of feeling. Hearing, smell, 
and taste, impress upon the mind, as permanent ideas, 
all the vast varieties of sounds, scents, and flavors. 
But, of all our senses, none is so refined and delicate, 
so useful and important, as our sight. It is a sort of 
exquisite, mysterious touch, extending over all the vis- 
ible creation, by which the spirit reaches out, selects and 
seizes its appropriate objects, taking in a thousand at a 
glance. These mental pictures and impressions, all 
these iniages of external objects mirrored in the mind, 
are called ideas ; and their names are nouns. A noun 
is the name of an idea. 

R. Your definition is too metaphysical for us to un- 
derstand. 

A noun is the name of something that we can 
see or think of. 

Dr. S. It is a scientific definition, perfectly correct ; 
but yours is plainer. Therefore I prefer it. Now re- 
member, that the name of any thing that we can see or 
think of is a noun. Look round, and tell me what 
you see. 

J. I see books, desks, benches, chairs, windows, 
houses, gardens, orchards, trees, leaves, blossoms, horses, 
men, women, boys, and girls. 

Dr. S. All these names are nouns. Now mention the 
names of a few things that you can think of but can 
not see. 

I. Let me see. What can I think of that I can not 
see? Faith, hope, charity, religion, virtue, education, 



40 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

love, benevolence, knowledge, wisdom, understanding, 
reason, memory, remember, notwithstanding 

R. Why, Ida ! can you think of such a thing as a 
remember or a notwithstanding? Where can it be 
found ? Who has it ? All of us have a memory and 
and an understanding. But who has a remember or 
a notwithstanding ? 

Dr. S. O ! never mind a little error, Ida ; for the best 
of us sometimes make mistakes : I do myself, occa- 
sionally. 

H. I can think of Kemember Kent ; but I can't tell 
who has him. 

All. Ha! ha! ha! ha! ha! 

Dr. S. Don't whip them, Mr. Puzzle, just for laugh- 
ing at our foolish jokes. You might as well chastise 
the birds for singing. Let them laugh, and blow away 
the cobwebs of our metaphysical abstractions, and bring 
us right down to plain, blunt common sense. It does 
a kind, benevolent man good to hear a merry peal of 
hearty laughter from a happy group of smiling children. 

Henry, what do you call ha ! ha ! ha ! ha ! ha ! 

H. An exclamation, sir. 

Dr. S. Do you hear that, friend Peter ? Can't these 
little fellows learn the parts of speech ? y\ow let us 
take right hold of nouns, my jolly lads, u.fd handle 
them without mittens. You can understand them just 
as well as I can. Look and see what you can see, and 
tell me their names. 

E. ! I can see a thousand things at once : clouds, 
mountains, rocks, hills, valleys, meadows, robins, pigeons, 
geese, and turkeys. 

H. Are the names of all these things nouns ? 

Dr. S. Yes, and the names of all that you can think of. 

E. I can think of some things that I can not see : 
truth, honor, fame, health, courage, kindness, goodness. 

Dr. S. Nouns generally make sense with my before 
them. Are life, death, and sickness, nouns ? 

D. Let me see: my life, my death, my sickness. 
Yes, sir. 

Dr. 8. Are speech, spealc, song, sing, skill, and skillful? 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 41 

H. My speech, my speak, my song, my sing, my 
skill, my skillful. Speech, song, and skill, are nouns. 

Dr. S. You're exactly right. Now, as I make a few 
short, easy sentences, pick out the nouns. 

See those children in the garden picking flowers. 

M Children, garden, and flowers, are nouns. 

I hold this book in my hand over David's head. 

H. This, hook, hand, Davids, and head, are nouns. 

Mi Is this the name of any thing ? My this. Does 
that make sense ? 

H. This is not a noun : I can't think of such a thing 
as a this. 

Ida, do you see that flock of pigeons ? . 

H. Ida, flock, pigeons. 

Dr. S. Now select the nouns as I repeat a little 
poetry. 

Know ye the land where the cypress and myrtle 

P. Land, cypress, myrtle. 

Are emblems of deeds that are done in their clime ? 
I. Emblems, deeds, clime. 

Where the rage of the vulture, the love of the turtle, 
R. Eage, vulture, love, turtle. 

Now melt into sorrow, now madden to crime ! 
M. Sorrow, crime. 

Know ye the land of the cedar and vine, 

"Where the flowers ever blossom, the beams ever shine ; 

Where the light wings of zephyr, oppressed with perfume, 

Wax faint o'er the gardens of Gull in her bloom ; 

Where the citron and olive are fairest of fruit, 

And the voice of the nightingale never is mute ; 

Where the tints of the earth, and the hues of the sky, 

In color though varied, in beauty may vie, 

And the purple of ocean is deepest in dye ; 

Where the virgins are soft as the roses they twi«!e, 

And all, save the spirit of man, is divine ? / 

I. Why, Dr. Syntax ! you repeat your poetry so fast 
we cant't pick out the nouns. 

Dr. S. Select them at your leisure, then. Now read 
a chapter in the Bible, and select the nouns in every 



42 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

verse, as you proceed. Continue reading and selecting, 
till you know them at a glance. 

We have a few nouns of a negative or privative char- 
acter that are not quite so easily distinguished, such as 
nought, nothing, non-existence, and nonentity. Yet 
even these nouns, though exceptions to our common 
definitions, are the names of ideas, which frequently be- 
come the subjects and the objects of our thoughts. 
There are a few short words, like I, thou, he, she, and it, 
that have no meaning of their own, but serve as repre- 
sentatives of other words. Though they are not the 
names of any objects or ideas, yet they perform the 
offices of nouns. We therefore call them pronouns. 

A pronoun is a word that represents a noun : 
as, " I can not go with these ; for I have not proved 
them." 

S. What nouns do these pronouns represent ? 

Dr. S. Read your Bible, Sarah, and you'll know. 

M. 1, represents David; these represents sword and 
armor, and so does them. 

L. Does a pronoun ever represent two nouns at 
once? 

Dr. S. yes, frequently ; and sometimes a dozen or 
more. 

P. Will you give us an example, Dr. Syntax ? 

Dr. S. Have you not given one already ? What does 
us represent ? 

P. Whv all of us. 

Dr. S. Who are all of us ? 

P. Mary, Lydia, Ida, Phebe, Sarah, Flora, Ann, and 
Kate, Oliver, Robert, William, David, Edward, John, 
and Henry. 

Dr. S. Us represents fifteen nouns then. This little 
pronoun is a wonderful word, as stretchy and elastic in 
its signification as an office-seeker's conscience, which 
expands and contrcts to suit the popular caprice ; be- 
coming everything by turns, and representing every 
body. It sometimes represents but two ; the speaker 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 43 

and the person addressed ; and then again, some family 
or school, society or party, nation, race, or all mankind. 
William, whose books are those that I see on your 
desk ? Are they yours, or John's, or Phebe's ? 

W. This is his, and that is hers ; and the others are 
mine. 

Dr. /S. Can you express what we have just said with- 
out using any pronouns? 

M. I think I can, sir ; but not very elegantly. Wil- 
liam, what person's books are the books Dr. Syntax 
sees on William's desk ? Are the books William's 
books or John's or Phebe's? This book is John's, and 
that book is Phebe's and the other books are William's. 

Dr. S. From this example you can see the great util- 
ity of pronouns, and what disagreeable repetitions we 
should have without them, destroying all the brevity 
and beauty of our language. As I read a few sen- 
tences, select the pronouns and tell me what they rep- 
resent. 

•Then said Martha unto Jesus, Lord, if thou hadst been here, my 
brother had not died. 

M. Thou represents Lord ; and my represents Martha. 

Jesus saith unto her, Thy brother shall rise again. 

P. Her and thy represent Martha. 

Martha saith unto him, I know that he shall rise again in the resur- 
rection at the last day. 

S. Him stands for Jesus; I for Martha; and he for 
brother. 

Jesus said unto her, I am the resurrection and the life : he that be- 
lieveth in me, though he were dead, yet shall he live : and whosoever 
liveth and believeth in me shall never die. Believest thou this ? 

R. Her and thou, stand for Martha ; I and me, for 
Jesus ; he, that, and whosoever, for any man indefinitely ; 
and this, for all that Jesus said to Martha in these two 
verses: I am the resurrection and theJife: he that be- 
lieveth in me, though he were dead, yet shall he live: and 
whosoever liveth and believeth in me shall never die. 

L. What ! do pronouns represent sentences ? 



44 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Dr. S. Yes; and sometimes paragraphs, and even 
whole discourses. After listening to an eloquent dis- 
course, we frequently make use of such expressions as 
these: What do you think of that? O! it is excel- 
lent ! They often represent different parts of poems or 
orations : as, 

Having said this to pave the way 

To what I am about to say, 

I'll now proceed directly to my theme. 

As pronouns borrow all their meaning from their an- 
tecedents, we can not clearly understand all that we 
hear or read, unless we know exactly what they repre- 
sent. When we thoughtlessly inquire of strangers at 
the post office, " Is there a letter here for me ?" " Who is 
me ?" echoes from within. Here is another illustration : 

So he has cut his throat at last ! He ! Who ? 
The man who cut his country's long ago. 

In quotations and detatched sentences, we can not tell 
exactly what the pronouns represent, unless we know 
the context. Bead the fourth chapter of St. John, se- 
lect the pronouns, verse by verse, and tell what each 
one represents. 

P. I never understood this chapter half so well be- 
fore. It pours a flood of light on dark passages, to 
know what every pronoun represents. 

Dr. S. There are no very dark passages in this chap- 
ter. Some time, at your leisure, read Isaiah, and ascer- 
tain what all the pronouns that he uses represent. Our 
misunderstanding and misapplication of the pronouns 
cause more obscurity in language, and more contro- 
versy and contention, than is caused by all the other 
parts of speech. Some of them are in language what 
algebraic letters are in mathematics ; representatives of 
indefinite and unknown quantities. 

To parcel out, describe, point and specify the persons 
or the things we speak of, and distinguish them from 
others beariDg the same names, we add to nouns such 
words as good, bad, sweet, sour, red, white, black, a, an, 



THE PAKTS OF SPEECH. 45 

the, this, that, one, two, three, &c. If I should say, Bring 
me roses, apples, plums, or pears, bow would you know 
what roses, apples, plums, or pears, I wanted ? or how 
many? But, when I say, Bring me those two full 
blown beautiful red roses, or three good, ripe, mellow, 
juicy, sweet apples, or six large, blue plums, you un- 
derstand exactly what I mean. 

I. What do you call those, two, full-blown, beautiful, 
and red; three, good, ripe, mellow, juicy, and sweet; six, 
large, and blue? 

Dr. S. Adjectives, because they are added to nouns. 

An adjective is a word added to a noun or pro- 
noun. 

Describing adjectives are the most numerous. De- 
scribe what you see, and some of you pick out the ad- 
jectives. 

W. I see rich, fertile valleys, and rough, rocky, barren 
hills. 

M. Rich wad fertile, are added to valleys ; and rough, 
rocky, and barren, to hills. 

H. I see an old, gray -headed man leading a poor, 
lame boy into the flower garden. 

J. An, old, and gray-headed, are added to man; a, 
poor, and lame, to boy ; and the and flower, to garden. 

P. P. Are an, a, and the, adjectives ? 

Dr. S. Certainly; for they are added to the nouns 
man, boy and garden. 

P. P. Do they describe anything, or express any 
quality ? 

Dr. S. No. An, singles out one man indefinitely ; 
and a, one boy ; the points out definitely this particular 
garden. Though adjectives generally deseribe, we have 
a few that specify, or point out, single out, or parcel 
out, persons or things without describing them ; thus 
limiting the signification of nouns, but not expressing 
quality : as, the book, this book, that book, these books, 
those books, a book one book, any book, some book, 
every book, many books, a hundred books, fine hun- 
dred thousand books. 



46 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

S. Is five hundred thousand taken together as one ad- 
jective ? 

Dr. S. Yes; and any number you can write before a 
noun in figures. Give us some examples on your 

gl o+ pg 

E. 986,375 men : 2,869,348,796 dollars. 

K ! what a pretty bird ! red, green, black, white, 
and yellow. 

H. What, a, pretty, red, green, Hack, white, and yellow, 
are all adjectives, added to bird. 

Dr. jS. Well done ! my noble lads ! You've found a 
real nest of adjectives belonging to this bird. You 
have an eye for word-painting. Try again. Describe 
some other things, and pick out all the adjectives. 

H. The clear, blue sky, bright, golden clouds, the 
glorious, morning sun, this beautiful, delightful, charm- 
ing landscape. 

M The, clear, and blue are added to shy ; bright, and 
golden, to clouds ; the glorious, and morning, to sun ; and 
this, beautiful, delightful, and charming, to landscape. 

P. Do you make an adjective of morning, Edward ? 
Is it not a noun ? 

Dr. S. Not exactly : it is here an adjective belonging 
to sun, though generally a noun. We have a great 
many nouns and a few pronouns, that are sometimes 
used as adjectives ; as, silver spoons, gold watches, leather 
caps, brass kettles, he goats, she bears. 

E. Cool, shady groves, pure, sparkling fountains, 
noisy, gabbling geese, sweet, singing birds, harmless, 
playful lambs. 

D. Cool, shady, pure, sparkling, noisy, gabbling, 
sweet, singing, harmless, playful. 

H. The cuuning, sly, deceitful fox, the good, old, 
honest, faithful, watch-dog, the busy, humming, honey- 
bees, the lazy, idle, good-for-nothing drones. 

J. Is good-for-not/iing taken together as one adjective ? 

Dr. S. Yes; as a compound adjective, and so are 
watch-dog and honey-bees as compound nouns. We have 
a great variety of compound adjectives; as, a plain 
matter-of-fact man ; an anti-talk-about-your-neighbor so- 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 47 

ciety ; a free and easy, sociable, how-do-you-do sort of 
man, with a saucy, I-care-for-noby-and-nobody-cares-for- 
me expression of countenance. Write on your slates 
the names of what you can think of. Now write ad- 
jectives before them. Bead what you have written. 

P. A rich productive soil, a mild salubrious climate. 

S. Warm pleasant days, cold stormy nights. 

I. A rude uncultivated boy, a pious amiable girl. 

R. A cross ill-natured teacher, and unruly pupils. 

W. Eough craggy peaks, green hills, bleak moun- 
tains. 

J. Two large fine-looking bay horses, new silver- 
plated harness. 

0. Gay smiling spring, bright fervid summer, sober 
thoughtful bounteous autumn, pale consumptive winter. 

Dr. S. Write a few pronouns with adjectives belong- 
ing to them. 

P. I am glad to see them happy, wealthy, and wise. 

S. Though poor and needy, she is cheerful and con- 
tented. 

0. He is kind and generous, modest, plain, and un- 
assuming. 

1. They that are idle and mischievous, will be ignor- 
ant. 

J. He that is wise and good can never be unfor- 
tunate. 

L. We are fortunate in losing what would make us 
proud and wicked, and, eventually miserable. 

Dr. S. In our language, adjectives are generally 
placed before the nouns and after the pronouns they 
belong to, as in these examples ; but this order is occa- 
sionally inverted : as, I see a band of spirits bright. 
How happy are they I How good and how pleasant it is ! 

P. P. A predicate adjective is generally placed after 
the subject and the copula: as, God is holy, just, and 
good. We are sinful, weak, and vain. 

S. What are the predicate and copula ? 

P. P. Everybody ought to know. I am astonished 
at your ignorance. 

Dr. S. These children have not studied logic, Mr. Puz- 



48 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

zle, and, of course, they know nothing about predicates 
or copulas. A grain of common sense is better than a 
pound of stiff, pedandic logic. As I read a little po- 
etry, pick out the adjectives. 

On rude December's cold, inclement air, 
W. Kude, cold, inclement. 

Rings out the cheering voice of fervent prayer. 

I. The, cheering, fervent. 

Amid the dreary wastes of ice and snow, 

J. The, dreary. 

Where cheerless Winter's howling tempests blow, 

M. Cheerless, howling. 

Sweet gardens bloom to faith's prophetic eyes, 

P. Sweet, prophetic. 

Rich fields of waving grain and flowery meads arise. 

L. Kich, waving, flowery. 

Delightful villages and cities smile, 

Magnificent with many a splendid pile. 

Such charming landscapes as old England never knew 

Spring up before enraptured fancy's eager view, 

And while the weary wintry hours away, 

With hope's sweet promise of a brighter day. 

J. You don't give us time to pick them out : you 
read so fast. 

Dr. S. Excuse me : I forgot myself. I now will read 
as slowly as I can, and give you all a chance to pick 
out every adjective. 

Slow sinks, more lovely ere his race be run, 
Along Morea's hills, the setting sun ; 

L. Slow, lovely, the, setting. 

R. Is slow an adjective? Slow what? 

L. Why, slow sinks. You ought to know it by its 
form. 

R. Slow sinks! ha! ha! ha! What sort of thing 
is that? 

Dr. S. The setting sun sinks slowlj r , Lydia. If you 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 49 

wish to know what part of speech a word belongs to, 
never mind its form, but its construction. Don't you 
see that slow is not an adjective here, though it has the 
form of one? 

Not as in northern climes obscurely bright, 

M. Northern, bright. 

But one unclouded blaze of living light ! 
P. One, unclouded, living. 

O'er the hushed deep the yellow beam he throws 
S. The, hushed, yellow. : 

Gilds the green wave, that trembles as it glows. 

J. Gilds, the, green, trembles, glows. 

W. Are gilds, trembles, and glows, adjectives? 

M. Do they not describe the sea, and make as bright 
a picture in our minds as green and yellow § ! they 
paint so beautifully that the blind can see the gilded, 
trembling, glowing picture of the hushed deep ! 

Dr. S. I think they do, and yet perform a more im- 
portant offi.ce still; that of expressing thoughts, and 
making sentences, which adjectives can never do, nor 
exclamations, nouns, or pronouns. 

JR. Can't we express our thoughts, and make sen- 
tences with any of these parts of speech ? 

Dr. /S. No ; not clearly and completely, nor with all 
of them together. If you think you can, try it and 
see. 

B. Dr. Syntax, this beautiful rose ? Phebe, your 
slate, your pecil. What a splendid house ! What charm- 
ing music ! ! my head ! my head ! Water ! water 
water ! Tidings, king ! Arms, brave boys, arms ! 

Dr. S. These are fragments of sentences, Robert 
something is implied to make the sense complete, which 
we can understand from the speaker's gestures, looks, 
and voice : as, Dr, Syntax, will you accept this beauti- 
ful rose ? Phebe, hand me your slate. What a splen 
did house this is ! O ! my head aches ! Give me water 
4 



50 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

I bring tidings, king ! Take arms, brave boys, take 
arms! 

P. What is a sentence ? 

Dr. S. A sentence is the complete expression 
of a thought. 

S. What is a thought ? 

Dr. S. Why, Sarah! have you been thinking all 
your life, and don't know what a thought is ? Thought 
is mental life, the circulation and attraction of ideas, the 
curious working of the mind in putting them together 
and attaching attributes to subjects — thus producing 
embryo sentences before they issue from the lips.* It is 
the source of power, the spring of action. 

S. I can't exactly understand you, Dr. Syntax. 

P. P. Let me explain it. Thought is an operation 
of that faculty called judgment, in discerning the agree- 
ment or disagreement of the idea of a power or quality, 
with the idea of some substance in which it is supposed 
to inhere ; that is, the ascribing of an attribute to a 
subject. Cogitation, its synonym, is derived from cogi- 
tatio, which implies the putting together of ideas in the 
process of thinking. 

JS. Your explanation makes it darker than it was 
before. 

J. What is a subject? 

Dr. 8. Turn your attention to your own thoughts : 
think, think. Can you think without thinking of some- 
thing? Now, whatever you think of is the subject of 
your thought, and what you think of it is the thought 
itself. They are inseparably connected ; consequently, 
every sentence must contain a thought and its subject 

John, what are you thinking of? 

J. I am thinking of that bird. 

Dr. S. Then the bird is the subject of your thoughts. 
What do you think of the bird ? 

J. I think it sings, and hops from branch to branch. 

Dr. S. Then sings and hops express your thoughts 
about the bird : they tell what you think of it 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 51 

J. O ! I understand you now. But how is thought 
the spring of action ? 

Dr. S. Can you act without thinking ? Try it and see. 

J. No, sir : I can't raise my hand, or move my fin- 
gers, or do anything, without thinking what I am about 
to do. 

Dr. S. Can you see other folks do anything without 
thinking what they do ? 

J. No, sir. But I think what they do, after it 13 
done, or while they are doing it, and what I do myself 
before I do it 

Dr. S. Then thought and action are reciprocal : your 
actions spring from your own thoughts, which are pro- 
duced by other actions. What you do depends on what 
you think, and what you think depends on what is done 
around you. Whatever you see a person or thing do, 
leaves an impression on the mind attached to the idea 
of the doer. This impression constitutes a thought, 
which is retained in the memory, inseparably connected 
with that idea as its subject, and spontaneously rises 
up in the mind, whenever you think of the person or 
thing. Impressions made upon our minds by actions 
are more durable than our ideas of persons or things ; 
preserving the remembrance of the actors as the sub- 
jects of our thoughts. The actors would be soon forgot, 
and leave no traces in the memory, were it not for those 
indelible impressions that their actions have engraven 
in the mind. If you think of this bird hereafter, what 
you hear and see it do will rise up in your memory as 
thoughts, so that you can take a retrospective view of 
all its actions, by the power of thought, presented to 
the mental senses : you can mentally hear and see it 
sing and hop as merrily as ever. Thus, momentary ac- 
tions are converted into thoughts that live forever. 
Whatever is done to a person or thing makes an im- 
pression on the mind of the observer, which remains in 
the memory as a permanent thought associated with the 
recollection of the person or thing. What is done to 
the bird ? 

L. O ! it is shot and killed by that wicked boy, and 



52 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

brought down, fluttering and bleeding, to the ground ! 
Look ! there it lies, besprinkled with its blood ! Its 
voice is hushed : its music will be heard no more. It 
was too fine a bird to be so cruelly abused. 

Dr. S. All such words, as sings, hops, is shot, killed, 
brought, fluttering, bleeding, look, lies, besprinkled^ is hushed, 
will be heard, was, and to be abused, are verbs. 

A verb is a word, or an assemblage of words, 
that expresses a thought. 

J. Are is and shot taken together as one verb ? 

Dr. S. Yes : so are is hushed, will be heard, and to be 
abused; and is is understood before killed and brought. 

R. Is was a verb ? It don't express an action. Does 
it express a thought ? 

Dr. S. Certainly : it attaches to its subject the idea 
expressed by fine bird, and thus ascribes to it an attri- 
bute. In this the thought consists. Strike out was, 
and see if there is any thought expressed without it. 

B. It — too fine a bird. I see ! I see ! That kills 
the sentence ; knocking all its brains out at a single 
blow. 

P. P. Logically speaking, too fine a bird is here the 
predicate, and was, the copula. Does not the predicate 
contain the thought much more than the copula ? In 
my opinion, it is not contained in any single word ; for 
it requires a whole sentence to express a thought. 

Dr. S. You might as well deny that the brain is the 
seat of thought, because the nervous system and the 
human frame are necessary for its operation. As thought 
is seated in the brain, and, through the nervous system, 
animates and actuates our frame, so all the thought- 
contained in any sentence is concentrated in the verb, 
which is the soul of language and the life of every 
sentence. To tell what we think, is the end and aim 
of language. But we can not think without a subject, 
nor express our thoughts without one. So, the grand 
essentials of every sentence are the subject and the 
thought. Now as the name of every thing that we can 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 53 

think of is a noun, and as a verb expresses what we 
think, no sentence can exist without a noun, (or its sub- 
stitute, a pronoun,) and a verb, either expressed or im- 
plied, and we can make complete sentences with these 
alone. 

M. Are all our thoughts produced by what is done 
around us ? 

Dr. S. By no means, Mary ; most of them, like com- 
plex ideas, are the products of reflection. But, as this 
is too abstruse for you to understand it now, we'll waiva 
it for the present. 

M. I understand it. Since I lost my sight, my 
thoughts go back to past events. It is my greatest 
pleasure to reflect and meditate on what I have seen 
and heard. 

Dr. S. Phebe, look at John, and tell us what you 
think of him. 

P. I think he smiles, he laughs, he coughs, he rises,, 
walks, runs, jumps, falls, rolls, shouts, and screams. 

Dr. S. Then you think just what you see and hear 
him do, and the verbs you use, communicate your 
thoughts to us. Tell what you think of me, and some 
of you select the verbs. 

I. You look at John, nod your head, and wave your 
hand. 

S. Look, nod, wave. 

W. You take that grammar, open it, and hand it 
to Ida. 

L. Take, open, hand. 

J. You snap your fingers, shut your hand, and shake 
your fist. 

M Snap, shut, shake. 

Dr. S. Write on your slates the names of any per- 
sons or things that you think of. Eead them. 

I. Grass, flowers, rivers, fish. 

W. Fire, water, winds, stars. 

S. Men, women, boys, girls. 

J. Cats, dogs, lions, horses. 

JR. Hens, geese, turkeys, eagles. 

Dr. jS. Write what you think of them, -with one word 



54: ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

placed after each name. Read what you have wrttten ; 
and some of you pick out the verbs. 

I. Grass grows, flowers bloom, rivers flow, fish swim. 

H. Grows, bloom, flow, swim. 

W. Fire burns, water drowns, winds blow, stars shine. 

M Burns, drowns, blow, shine. 

jS. Men mow, women spin, boys play, girls knit. 

D. Mow, spin, play, knit. 

J. Cats scratch, dogs bite, lions roar, horses run. 

H. Scratch, bite, roar, run. 

R. Hens cackle, geese gabble, turkeys gobble, eagles 
scream. 

M Cackle, gabble, gobble, scream. 

Dr. tS. Hear that, sir ! Can't they learn the parts of 
speech ? You have now made several complete sen- 
tences with nouns and verbs only, each having but two 
words, and containing but one thought and but one 
subject. These are simple sentences. But sometimes 
we have a great many thoughts on the same subject. 
What else do you think of flowers, winds, men, dogs, 
and geese. 

I. Flowers decay, fade, wither, droop, and die. 

W. Winds rise, rage, bluster, howl, and moan. 

8. Men plow, sow, plant, hoe, cradle, rake and bind. 

J. Dogs watch, bark, whine, growl, snap, and snarl. 

R. Geese wade and waddle, swim and dive, or sit 
and float 

Dr. S. Each of these sentences contains one noun, 
and several verbs expressing different thoughts on the 
same subject. These are compound sentences. Some- 
times the same thought is applied to several different 
subjects: as, "Kings, queens and nobles tremble at his 
frown." " Trees and houses were blown down. Men, 
beasts and birds were swept away, and perished in the 
storm." 

P. Can we make a sentence without a noun ? 

S. Certainly: we can use pronouns as subjects instead 
of nouns. Some of these pronouns — I, thou, he, she, 
and it; we, you, and they — may be used as representa- 
tives of any nouns whatever : consequently, any word 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 55 

that will make sense with one of these little words be- 
fore it as a subject is a verb ; as, I am, thou, art, he is, 
we are, you are seen, they are gone. 

L. You used two words after they. Are they both 
verbs ? 

Dr. S. Are and gone are taken together as one verb ; 
for they express but one thought The same may be 
said of are and seen. We sometimes take three or four 
words together as one verb : as, It has been done ; it 
might have been done. To understand this thoroughly, 
you must practice conjugating verbs. Any word that 
can be conjugated is a verb. Ida, will you mention a 
few verbs ? 

I. Think, see, hear, feel, speak, read, sing, sweetly. 

M. I sweetly, thou sweetly, he sweetly, we sweetly, 
you sweetly, they sweetly. Does that make sense ? 

Dr. S. Keep a sharp look-out for errors: we are 
watched by keen- eyed critics. Now, my bright-eyed 
little fellows, as I make a few short sentences, pick out 
every verb. 

I sit in this chair, and talk with you about gram- 
mar. 

H. Sit, talk. 

I raise this ball, and throw it on the floor. See it 
bound. 

JU. Raise, throw, see, bound. 

Listen to what I tell you, and remember what you 
hear. 

D. Listen, tell, remember, what, hear. 

E. Is what a verb ? I what, thou what, he what 
Does that make sense ? 

The sun shines, the flies buzz, the bees hum, the 
birds sing. 

H. Shines, buzz, hum, sing. 

"We feel soft breezes, hear sweet sounds, and smell 
sweet odors. 

D. Feel, hear, smell, sweet. 

H. I sweet, thou sweet, he sweet, we sweet, you 
sweet — ha ! ha ! ha I 

Dr. S. Don't laugh at him, Henry : he does very well 



56 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

indeed. As I repeat some poetry, select the verbs in 
every line. 

Daughter of Faith, awake ! arise ! illume 
The dread unknown, the chaos of the tomb ! 

& Awake, arise, illume. 

Melt and dispel, ye specter doubts, that roll 
Cimmerian darkness on the parting soul ! 

W. Melt, dispel, roll. 

Yes — she is ours — a home-returning bark — 
I. Is. 

Blow fair, thou breeze ! She anchors ere the dark. 

IT, Blow, anchors. 

Already doubled is the cape ! our bay 

Receives that prow which proudly spurns the spray. 

M. Is doubled, receives, spurns. 

How gloriously her gallant course she goes ! 

J. Goes. 

Her white wings flying — never from her foes — 
P. Flying. 

She walks the waters like a thing of life, 

JE Walks. 

And seem3 to dare the elements to strife. 

I. Seems, to dare. 

Who would not brave the battle-fire — the wreck — 
To move the mouarch of her peopled deck ! 

aS Would brave, to move. 

When my breast labors with oppressive care, 
And o'er my cheek descends the falling tear ; 
While all my warring passions are at strife, 
Oh ! let me listen to the words of life ! 
Raptures deep-felt his doctrines did impart, 
And thus he raised from earth the drooping heart. 
" Think not, when all your scanty stores afford, 
Is spread at once upon the sparing board ; 
Think not, when worn the homely robe appears, 
While on the roof the howling tempest bears ; 
What farther shall this feeble life sustain, 
And what shall clothe these shivering limbs again. 



THE PAKTS OF SPEECH. 57 

Say, does not life ita nourishment exceed ? 
And the fair body, its investing weed ? 
Behold ! and look away your low despair — 
See the light tenants of the barren air : 
To them, nor stores, nor granaries, belong ; 
Nought, but the woodland, and the pleasing song ; 
Yet, your kind heavenly Father bends Mb eye 
On the least wing that flits along the sky. 
To him they sing when spring renews the plain ; 
To him they cry in winter's piercing reign ; 
Nor is their music, nor their plaint in vain : 
He hears the gay, and the distressful call ; 
And with unsparing bounty, fills them all. 

Observe the rising lily's snowy grace ; 
Observe the various vegetable race : 
They neither toil, nor spin, but careless grow ; 
Yet see how warm they blush ! how bright they glow ! 
What regal vestments can with them compare ! 
What king so shining ! or what queen so fair ! 

If ceaseless, thus, the fowls of heaven he feeds ; 
If o'er the fields such lucid robes he spreads ; 
Will he not care for you, ye faithless, say ? 
Is he unwise ? or, are ye less than they ?" 

After selecting the verbs, select the exclamations ; 
then, the nouns, the pronouns, and the adjectives, in 
regular order. Eead the eleventh chapter of St. John, 
and pick out all the verbs in every verse as you pro- 
ceed. The Bible is the best book in the world to study 
verbs, as well as pronouns, in ; for it is full of thoughts, 
and, therefore, almost every page abounds in verbs. 

M. Do all our actions spring from thoughts ? 

Dr. jS. All our voluntary actions are but outward 
manifestations of our thoughts ; and every achievement 
of art is but their impress and embodiment. All the 
wonderful movements of the most complicated ma- 
chinery, have a pre-existence in the thoughts of the in- 
ventor. Nothing comes to pass by chance. All the 
works of creation, and all the operations of nature, are 
the manifestations of the thoughts of our Creator. He 
thinks, and it is done ; he determines, and it stands fast 
There is no fortuitous event The universe is full of 
design. 

All nature is but art unknown to thee ; 

All chance, direction which thou canst not see. 

Actions and events make a durable impression oa 



58 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

the mind. Persons and things are remembered on ac- 
count of what they do, or what is done to them : the 
subject is embalmed in the thought. The noble deeds 
and patient sufferings of celebrated heroes, patriots, and 
martyrs, are engraven in our minds, and give them 
everlasting remembrance. Who would now remember 
the illustrious dead, if they had passed their time in 
sloth, effeminacy, and ignoble ease? Are not their 
names now cherished in our thoughts for what they 
did and what they suffered ? 

The great apostle's mind was filled with glowing 
thoughts, by earnest contemplation of what was done 
and suffered by those ancient worthies who, " through 
faith subdued kingdoms, wrought righteousness, ob- 
tained promises, stopped the mouths of lions, quenched 
the violence of fire, escaped the edge of the sword, out 
of weakness were made strong, waxed valiant in fight, 
turned to flight the armies of the aliens: who were 
stoned, who were sawn asunder, were tempted, were 
slain with the sword : who wandered about in sheep- 
skins and goatskins ; being destitute, afflicted, tor- 
mented." 

M. I can see how thought is the source of power and 
the spring of action very clearly now. We think, and 
then we do just what we think, and fashion what we 
make according to the picture in our thoughts. So, 
all our actions and the works of art spring from our 
thoughts. In the beginning God thought, and what he 
thought he made and fashioned out of nothing: as 
the expression of his thoughts, ten thousand times ten 
thousand spacious worlds and living creatures sprung 
into existence ; leaping out of darkness and dead chaos 
into light and life. So all the works of nature — light, 
life and action — all things lovely, beautiful and bright, 
are emanations and reflections of his thoughts. 

Dr. S. You see quite clearly for a blind girl, Mary. 
Very few of us can see as well with both our eyes wide 
open. 

M. Since I lost my sight, the Lord has poured a flood 
of light within, and given me bright glimpses of his 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 59 

glory. He has closed my eyes on earth, to open them 
on heavenly things in holy visions of sublimity and 
beauty. I can see the pure, ideal world. 

jS. What difference is there between ideas and 
thoughts ? 

Dr. & Ideas are but the materials for thinking. 
Thought is mental electricity, pervading them, arous- 
ing them to life and action, and uniting them into 
propositions; the bright, ethereal soul of every sen- 
tence, animating all its parts, and holding them to- 
gether. As ideas are the subjects and the objects of 
our thoughts, so nouns are the subjects and the objects 
of verbs. 

W. Is there any word that can't be used as a noun? 

Dr. S. No. Whenever we use any word or character, 
or any combination of words or characters as a subject, 
it becomes a noun, unless it stands for a noun as a pro- 
noun : and every pronoun may be used as a noun. 
Write on your slates any words or characters that you 
can think of. Now write what you think of them. 
Read what you have written. 

P. I is a pronoun ; is is a verb ; 3 is a prime number. 

B. Th has two sounds ; Sx equals 4y ; 6x8 is 48 ; 
: is a colon. 

S. A is a vowel ; -[- is the sign of addition ; .= de- 
notes equality. 

Dr. S. As any word or character becomes a noun 
when used as the subject of a thought, so any word or 
character used to express a thought, becomes a verb ; 
as, 3as=4y. The sweetest flowers dk. Gestures may 
be used instead of verbs, denoting motion, to commu- 
nicate our thoughts. This is often done by children, 
mutes, and foreigners who do not understand our lan- 
guage. 

Adjectives and verbs, in some respects, are very near 
allied. Adjectives express the qualities of things as 
permanent attributes already fixed and established; 
Dut they can not ascribe them to a subject so as to ex- 
press each fleeting thought, as verbs do. Observe the 
difference in these expressions: I heard the lying 



60 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

rogue ; I heard the rogue lying. I saw a walking 
skeleton ; I saw a skeleton walking. 

P. P. Are not thoughts expressed by predicative ad-^ 
jectives; as, if we were good, we would be happy? 

Dr. S. Omit the verbs and see: If we good, we 
happy. 

B. That kills both sentences ; destroying their cohe- 
rence. 

Dr. S. Thought is mental magnetism that holds the 
subject and the predicate together, and without a verb 
no thought can be expressed. 

P. P. Were and icould be are but copulas, signifying 
nothing but the union of the subject with the predicate. 

Dr. S. Does not that very union constitute the 
thought? The different variations of the verb to be 
are all the copulas we have, and every other verb per- 
forms the offices of copula and predicate. So all we 
differ about is this little verb. When you consider all 
the modifications and complications of thought ex- 
pressed by verbs in all their moods and tenses, I be- 
lieve that we shall perfectly agree. 

P. P. If I had my intellectual philosophies and logics 
with me, I could show that you are in an error. I 
have quite a library of them in my studio. 

Dr. S. I always have mine with me ; they're so few 
and small, that I can carry them in the crown of my hat 

M. Are not adjectives more closely allied to nouns 
than verbs ? 

Dr. 3. Adjectives generally express concrete ideas, 
which represent qualities or attributes existing in some 
substance as a basis or support, and can not stand alone 
as subjects or as objects of our thoughts. A noun is the 
name of a self-dependent idea, that can stand alone and 
be the subject or the object of a thought, the basis and 
substratum that sustains and holds together all the con- 
crete ideas that cluster round it. Ice, for instance, is the 
name of a self-dependent idea, which represents a cold, 
smooth, hard, solid, clear, transparent, brittle, slippery, 
fusible substance; and cold, smooth, hard, solid, clear, 
transparent, brittle, slippery, and fusible, are adjectives ex- 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 61 

pressing concrete ideas, which represent the qualities or 
attributes of ice, and can not stand alone as subjects or 
as objects of our thoughts, unless by abstraction we re- 
gard these qualities as separated from the substances in 
which they exist. They then become abstract ideas ; 
and their names are called abstract nouns ; as, coldness, 
smoothness, hardness, solidity, clearness, transparency, brit- 
tleness, slipperiness, and fusibility. Of the matter, sub- 
stance, basis, or substratum, that supports and holds 
together the perceptible qualities of things, we know no 
more than we do about the substance of the mind or 
that of disembodied spirits. Can you tell me what sup- 
ports and holds together all these qualities of ice ? 

P. P. Cold, (or to speak more philosophically,) the 
absence of heat. 

Dr. S. Then they are supported by mere nothing : 
cold is a negative quality, and is supported by itself, 
(according to your theory,) while it supports the other 
qualities of ice. You might as well maintain that Mr. 
Nobody can lift himself up by the straps of his boots 
and half a dozen other men hanging to him, and hold 
himself and them suspended in the air. Gold is a 
heavy, yellow, soft, tenacious, flexible, ductile, mallea- 
ble, fusible, bright, precious metal. Now, observe the 
adjectives, and tell me what sustains and holds together 
all these qualities of go]d. 

M. You dive too deep for our capacity. 

Dr. JS, I am talking for the edification of your 
teacher, Mr. Puzzle. He is fond of mystery and meta- 
physics. 

P. P. Material things arc nothing but mere bundles 
of qualities. 

Dr. J$. Show us the bands that bind them together. 

P. Don't puzzle Mr. Puzzle so : you'll make him crazy. 
"P. P. Let me search my books, and I will tell you 
all about it. 

Dr. S. This reminds me of a great philosopher, who, 
in his study, really believed that he was nothing but 
a bundle of ideas. But he never could reduce his the- 
ory to practice in the crowded streets of London, where 



62 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

he was compelled to dodge about as unphilosophically 
as if he had a real physical, corporeal frame, to save 
from dislocations, fractures, and contusions. From the 
most refined idealism to the most absurd and gross ma- 
terialisms, we have too much speculative philosophy, 
and altogether too little that is practical and useful. 

I. What is the real practical use of adjectives ? 

Dr. S. They limit, qualify, and emphasize the mean- 
ing of the nouns that they are added to ; presenting to 
the mind the qualities and situations, quantities and 
numbers of the things expressed ; describing, pointing 
out, and specifying what is meant ; portraying all the 
works of nature and of art, and all the airy shapes of 
fancy ; painting to the eye, the ear, the nose, the feel- 
ings, and the taste. 

S. I can't see how adjectives can paint to the ear, the 
nose, the feelings, and the taste. 

M. I can very clearly: /Sweet, harmonious sounds; 
harsh, discordant sounds ; fragrant, pleasant odors ; fetid, 
rank, offensive odors ; cold, damp, chilly, disagreeable 
weather; warm, delightful weather; hot, burning sand ; 
sour, ill-favored fruit. The bud may have a bitter taste ; 
but sweet will be the flower. 

Dr. S. From this you see that adjectives perform the 
office of word-painting. We can paint more beauti- 
fully with them than with the pencil. We can take a 
wider range. The painter's art addresses only our 
sight : the poet's, all our senses, and our mental facul- 
ties. What a fine effect they have in these examples ! 
" Along with them they brought one Pinch ; a hungry, 
lean-faced villain ; a needy, hollow-eyed, sharp-looking 
wretch, a living dead man." 

The breezy call of incense-breathing morn, 

The swallow twitt'ring from the straw-built shed, 
The cock's shrill clarion, or the echoing horn, 

No more shall rouse them from their lowly bed. 
For who, to dumb forgetfulness a prey, 

This, pleasing anxious being e'er resigned, 
Left the warm precincts of the cheerful day, 

Nor cast one longing, ling'ring look behind. 
On some fond breast the parting soul relies, 

Some pious drops the closing eye requires. 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 63 

Without adjectives, our language would resemble the 
rude outlines of unfinished pictures, which, like adjec- 
tives employed by skillful poets, the soft touches of 
the painter's magic pencil clothes with life and beauty. 
Make a few short sentences with nouns and verbs, then 
finish them with adjectives. 

W. Bring apples. Bring a dozen good, ripe, mellow 
apples. 

I. Horses draw loads. Old horses draw heavy loads. 

L. Painters make pictures. Skillful painters make 
beautiful pictures. 

J. Scholars get lessons. Studious scholars get per- 
fect lessons. 

B. Lazy, idle, heedless scholars get imperfect lessons. 

Dr. S. Strike out the adjectives in this descriptive 
poetry, and see what kind of language we should nave 
without them. 

At summer eve, when Heaven's aerial bow- 
Spans with bright arch the glittering hills below, 
Why to yon mountain turns the musing eye, 
Whose sun-bright summit mingles with the sky ? 
Why do those cliffs of shadowy tint appear 
More sweet than all the landscape smiling near 1 
'Tis distance lends enchantment to the view, 
And robes the mountain in its azure hue. 
Thus, with delight we linger to survey 
The promised joys of life's unmeasured way : 
Thus, from afar, each dim-discovered scene 
More pleasing seems than all the past hath been ; 
And every form that fancy can repair 
From dark oblivion, glows divinely there. 

Select the exclamations, nouns, pronouns, adjectives, 
and verbs, in the following lines : 

He said, and on the rampart-heights arrayed 
His trusty warriors, few, but undismayed ! 
Firm paced and slow, a horrid front they form, 
Still as the breeze, but dreadful as the storm ; 
Low, murmuring sounds along their banners fly, 
Revenge or death, the watch-word and reply ; 
Then pealed the notes, omnipotent to charm, 
And the loud tocsin tolled their last alarm. 

In vain, alas ! in vain, ye gallant few ! 
From rank to rank your volleyed thunder flew ! 
Oh ! bloodiest picture in the book of time ! 
Sarmatia fell, unwept, without a crime ; 



64 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Found not a generous friend, a pitying foe, 
Strength in her arms, nor mercy in her wo ! 
Dropt from her nerveless grasp the shattered spear, 
Closed her bright eye, and curbed her high career ! — 
Hope, for a season, bade the world farewell, 
And Freedom shrieked — as Kosciusko fell ! 

The sun went down, nor ceased the carnage there, 
Tumultuous murder shook the midnight air — 
On Prague's proud arch the fires of ruin glow, 
His blood-died waters murm'ring far below ; 
The storm prevails, the ramparts yield away, 
Bursts the wild cry of horror and dismay ! 
Hark ! as the smouldering piles with thunder fall, 
A thousand shrieks for hopeless mercy call ! 
Earth shook — red meteors flashed along the sky, 
And conscious Nature shuddered at the cry ! 

Charity, decent, modest, easy, kind, 
Softens the high, and rears the abject mind, 
Knows with just reins, and gentle hand, to guide 
Between vile shame and arbitrary pride. 
Not soon provoked, she easily forgives ; 
And much she suffers, as she much believes. 
Soft peace she brings wherever she arrives ; 
She builds our quiet, as she forms our lives ; 
Lays the rough paths of peevish nature even ; 
And opens in each heart a little heaven. 

As the carpenter and joiner nail and pin together all 
the loose materials in a building which they can't unite 
with mortices and tenons, so, in building sentences, we 
have a few small words that serve as nails and pins, to 
fasten and unite such words as have not sufficient adap- 
tation or affinity to coalesce and hold themselves to- 
gether by their mutual fitness or attraction : as, I see a 
flock of pigeons flying over Mr. Bloomfield's meadow, 
towards the city. What words fasten flock and pigeons, 
flying and meadow, and city, to each other in this sen- 
tence, with the strong and yet invisible ties of relation ? 
Strike out of, over and towards, then you will see if all 
the ties of relation are not broken. 

S. I see a flock — pigeons flying — Mr. Bloomfield's 
meadow — the city. Of fastens flock to pigeons, over fast- 
ens flying to meadow, and towards fastens fly in g to city. 
Flock of pigeons — flying over meadow — flying towards 
the city. 

Dr. S. This peculiar union of incongruous words is 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 65 

called relation. To express every variety of relation, 
we have about a hundred little words like of, over, and 
towards, called prepositions. 

A preposition is a word placed before another 
to express relation. 

Our language has a multitude of heterogeneous words 
derived from other languages, which, like strange cat- 
tle brought together from a great many different herds, 
are apt to disagree and gore each other, or to straggle 
off and go astray, till they are tamed beneath our An- 
glo-Saxon yoke of prepositions. So, you see, each 
preposition is a sort of verbal yoke, to couple strange, 
unfriendly words that have no natural affinity, and make 
them work together in a sort of artificial, forced rela- 
tion, very different from the intimate relations of ad- 
jectives to nouns, and of verbs to their subjects, which 
require no intervening words to fasten them together : 
they adhere by mutual attraction. 

L What is relation ? 

Dr. S. Relation is that peculiar union or connection 
of words which shows what or where one thing is with 
respect to another, and the bearing of one idea or 
thought upon another. Time and space give rise to 
many different relations, which prepositions represent 
in language, showing us how different things are sit- 
uated with respect to one another, or the relative oc- 
currence of different actions and events : as, " See that 
lady in the garden under a peach tree with a dozen 
children sitting round her on the ground among the 
flowers.'" " He went from Washington to Richmond." 
" The war commenced before the declaration of inde- 
pendence.-" There is a great variety of relations ex- 
pressed by prepositions having no regard to time or 
place ; such as the relations of property, means, instru- 
mentality, cause and effect : as, " He was taken by 
stratagem and killed with a sword." "She died of a 
fever." As ideas and thoughts are held together in 
our minds by their relations, so are the words that rep- 
5 



66 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

resent them held together in a sentence by the words 
that represent relations. The words that express the 
ideas or thoughts whose relation is expressed by prep- 
ositions, are called the terms of relation. The object 
of a preposition usually comes after it, and is, therefore, 
called the subsequent term of relation ; and the other 
is called the antecedent term, because it generally goes 
before the preposition. Sometimes this order is in- 
verted. 

R. Your explanations are about as dark as Mr. Puz- 
zle's. 

Dr. & Excuse me : I forgot myself, and overrated 
your capacity. The abstract idea of relation is entirely 
too abstruse for you to understand. I must resort to 
something visible and tangible. I hold this cherry 
in my hand betwixt my thumb and finger. I move it 
towards your head, near your head, to your head, around 
your head, above your head, on your head, behind your 
head, before your eyes, across your nose, along your nose, 
aslant your nose, athwart your nose ; and through it at 
your nose, between your lips, against your teeth, into 
your mouth, and down your throat, with your consent 
Now, can you understand these prepositions, and all 
the relations they express ? 

R. Hem ! hem ! yes, sir. It is a very good cherry ; 
and all the relations are agreeable, except to my nose : 
I hope it never will be red enough to be related to a 
cherry. 

Br. & Select the prepositions in the sentences I give 
you, and tell us what they show the relation between. 
The sun shines through the clouds upon the earth. 

I. Through shows the relation between sim and clouds, 
and upon shows the relation between sun and earth. 

P. iShines is the antecedent term of relation, not the 
sun. 

P. P. Can prepositions show relation between nouns 
and verbs ? I am amazed at such absurdity. " Prepo- 
sitions show the relations of things." The very idea 
of relation necessarily implies different things related 
to each other. Nouns and pronouns are the only words 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 67 

that express things : consequently prepositions can ex- 
press relation between no other words than nouns and 
pronouns. 

Dr. S. You are exactly right, Phebe, notwithstand- 
ing all the sweeping logic of our learned friend, be-- 
cause the meaning is, shines through the clouds upon 
the earth, and not the sun through the clouds upon the 
earth. Prepositions express the relations of ideas, and 
of thoughts, concrete as well as substantive and ab- 
stract ideas : as, " I am amazed at such absurdity." Do 
you mean /at absurdity, or am amazed at absurdity?" 
I sit in this chair, and look through the window across 
the street into that house. Do I mean i" in this chair, 
/through the window, i" across the street, and / into 
that house ? 

H. No, sir : you sit in the chair, look through the 
window, look across the street, and look into that house. 

Dr. S. That is -right, exactly, Henry: sit in chair, 
boh through window, look across street, look into house. 
To ascertain the terms of relation, find the words that 
make the best sense, spoken in immediate connection 
with the preposition. The book of Nature everywhere 
lies open before you. 

JR. Book of Nature. Book before you ? No. Na- 
ture before you ? No. Lies before you ? Yes : that 
is it. Before shows the relation between lies, and you 
and of, the relation between book and nature. Every 
thing above and beneath, around and within us, pro- 
claims its Divine Author. 

W. Every thing above us ; every thing beneath us ; 
every thing around us and within us. Above, beneath, 
around, and tvithin, show the relations between every 
thing and ivs. "Whom have I in heaven but thee? and 
there is none upon earth that I desire besides thee." 

M. Whom in heaven ? whom but thee ? none upon 
earth ; none besides thee. 

On him, their second Providence, they hung. 

J. Hung on him. On shows the relation between 
hung and him. 



68 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Did here the trees with ruddier burdens bend, 
And there the streams in purer rills descend ? 

0. Bend with burdens, and descend in rills. 

These little things are great to little man. 

1. Great to man. 

In these deep solitudes and awful cells, 
Where heavenly pensive Contemplation dwells, 
And ever musing Melancholy reigns, 
What means this tumult in a vestal's veins ? 

JR. Tumult in veins. In shows the relation between 
tumult and veins. But what does the other in show the 
relation between? In solitudes and cells. But what 
in solitudes and cells ? Echo answers, what? What 
in solitudes and cells means this tumult 

0, for a thousand tongues to sing 
My great Redeemer's praise ! 

E. 0, for tongues ! For shows the relation between 
and tongues. 

Dr. S. Hurrah for Young America ! "What do you 
think of that, my learned friend? 

P. P. Think ! why I think it is what might be rea- 
sonably expected of a child that don't know all his 
letters. If he had ever studied grammar, he would 
know that "interjections have no dependent construc- 
tion," and, of course, can not be terms of relation. 

Dr. S. What are the terras of relation then ? 

P. P. There is evidently something understood ; as, 
O, how I wish for a thousand tongues ! 

Dr. S. Then, according to } 7 our theory, the meaning 
is, /for tongues, or wish for tongues, according to mine. 
But is not Edward's simple, common sense analysis pref- 
erable to either? O, for a thousand tongues ! Does not 
this express the meaning fully, and more forcibly, with- 
out supplying anything at all ? Many of our exclama- 
tions are virtually crude sentences, expressing indigested 
thoughts condensed in single words abruptly uttered, 
as ejaculations, glowing with emotion. So they may 
be used as terms of relation and connection ; as, " Hail 
to the chief who in triumph advances." " Welcome to 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 69 

our classic shades." " Hosannah to Jesus on high." 
"Alas! and did my Saviour bleed?" "Behold! and 
look away your low despair." 

P. P. Are not hail, ivelcome, and behold, verbs in the 
imperative mood ? 

Dr. S. Verbs in the imperative mood and exclama- 
tions are so near allied, that good grammarians are lia- 
ble to differ. Whether such word as hail, hark, hush r . 
look, see, welcome, and behold, are verbs or exclamations, 
depends entirely on the intensity of feeling, and the 
abruptness with which they are uttered. Prepositions 
are, in some respects, allied to verbs; for they, like 
transitive verbs, have objects : but they have no sub- 
jects. Many of them are, in fact, old Anglo-Saxon 
verbs, obsolete, dead and buried, laid aside, and sepa- 
rated from their subjects, till they have lost the power 
of thought, but clinging to their objects, till they rise 
again as modern prepositions to express relations. Now 
and then a verb in common use becomes a preposition- 
when it has no subject: as, "They were all there ex-- 
cept John." Some words of a participial form appear 
to be in a state of transition, wavering between verbs 
and prepositions, with a slight dependence on their sub- 
jects: as, "I have heard but little concerning him, ex- 
cepting his failure." 

M. How do you distinguish verbs from prepositions? 

Dr. S. Verbs depend upon their subjects, and prep- 
ositions on their objects. Hence, a verb makes sense 
with I, thou, he, she, or it, we, you, or they, before it ; and 
a preposition makes sense with me, thee, him, her, or it, 
us, you, or them, after it; as, to me, for thee, after him, 
before her, with it, against us, around you, among them. 

S. How do you distinguish adjectives from preposi- 
tions ? 

Dr. S. Adjectives, like prepositions, make good sense 
before nouns, but not before pronouns. Thus, we can 
correctly say, good books, poor Richard ; but not good 
them, or poor him, as we can say without books, with- 
out them, for Richard, and for him, with equal propriety. 

R. Mr. Puzzle makes us learn the list of preposi- 



70 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

tions, so that we can know them when we see them ; 
and, to help our memory, some of the boys wrote them 
down in verse. With your permission I'll repeat 
them. 

At, after, against, down, before, over, through, 
Up, above, underneath, by, between, around, to, 
Like, beneath, for, except, in, among, round, about, 
On, beyond, off, upon, with, within, from, without, 
Overthwart, notwithstanding, besides, since, throughout, 
Along, unto, towards, past, under, above, 
Before, near, amidst, till, behind, into, of ; 
And a very few more, as we're taught by Sir Peter, 
Which I can not repeat without spoiling my meter. 

Dr. S. Though many of these words are generally 
prepositions, yet most of them are often used as other 
parts of speech. This list is, therefore, not to be de- 
pended on in parsing. Prepositions are, like other parts 
of speech, best known by their construction. Now 
select the prepositions in these lines, and tell us what 
each of them shows the relation between ; then select 
the exclamations, nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and 
verbs. 

The fourth day rolled along, and with the night 
Came storm and darkness in their mingling might; 
Oh ! how he listened to the rushing deep, 
That ne'er till now so broke upon his 6leep ; 
And hi3 wild spirit wilder wishes sent, 
Roused by the roar of his own element ! 
Oft had he ridden on that winged wave, 
And loved its roughness for the speed it gave ; 
And now its dashing echoed on his ear, 
A long-known voice — alas ! too vainly near ! 
Loud sung the winds above ; aDd doubly loud, 
• Shook o'er his turret cell the thunder cloud ; 
And flashed the lightning by the latticed bar, 
To him more genial than the midnight star. 

Now make some sentences containing nouns, pro- 
nouns, adjectives, verbs, and prepositions, only. 

P. What beautiful birds I see in that cherry tree ! 

S. The glittering dew-drops hang like jewels on the 
flowers. 

W. Do you see that old man walking with a cane 
across the flower garden, led by a boy ? 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 71 

I. I see a beautiful young lady going towards him 
with a basket full of cherries in each hand. 

R. Observe those splendid tower-like clouds, that 
stand upon the snow-clad mountains round the western 
sky. They look like fairy palaces with golden sun- 
bright pillars, rising one above another into heaven. 

JSf. At early dawn I walk, unseeing and unseen, 

Wrapped in deep thought, o'er hills with charming valea between ; 

In this lone hour, while Art with Nature's self reposes, 

I hear sweet sounds ; I breathe the fragrant breath of roses, 

The voice of Inspiration whispers through each grove, 

To cheer the poor blind girl in softest notes of love. 

Dr. S. With the thoughts excited in our minds by 
what is done within the scope of our observation, are 
frequently blended durable impressions of the manner, 
time and place of doing it ; and, to express these im- 
pressions, other words are added to the verb : as, The 
birds sing sweetly here to-day. Our ideas of qualities 
.and even of relations, are occasionally, so modified as 
to require additional words appended or prefixed to 
adjectives or prepositions to express them: as, "So 
mildly, sweetly, beautifully, bright." " This happened 
just before his death." Such words as so, mildly, sweetly, 
beautifully, just, here, and io-day, we call adverbs. 

An adverb is a word added to a verb, an ad- 
jective, a preposition, or another adverb. 

P. P. What! are adverbs added to prepositions? 

Dr. S. To be sure they are, occasionally. 

P. P. I have consulted hundreds of our best classi- 
cal teachers, and have studied all the Greek and Latin 
.grammars extant, and a dozen English grammars; but 
have never heard nor read of it before. What is your 
authority for such an innovation ? 

Dr. S. Plain common sense and reason, as I'll show 
you. Look ! I hold this ball exactly over Henry's head. 
It falls close to his feet and rolls directly towards the door 
-almost across the room. What are these adverbs added 
to? 



72 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

P. P. Exactly relates to hold, close to falls, and 
directly and almost to rolls. 

Dr. S. What ! do I exactly hold this ball, or hold it 
exactly over Henry's head? Does it fall close or close to 
his feet? Does it directly roll, or roll directly toivards 
the door? Does it almost roll, or quite roll almost across 
the room ? 

H. Why, Mr. Puzzle ! It don't almost roll : it quite 
rolls, almost across the room. 

P. P. Must I stand corrected by a boy that don't 
know all his letters ? 

R. Thus he, for them a ray of reason stole, 

Half through the solid darkness of his soul. 

Dr. S. Adverbs are very numerous, and diversified 
in their character and application. But they may be 
distinguished by their dependence on verbs, adjectives, 
prepositions, or other adverbs, as adjectives are distin- 
guished by their dependence on nouns or pronouns. 
Many of them will answer the question, how ? when ? 
or where ? as, How does he speak ? 

W. Slowly, distinctly, smoothly, fluently, eloquently. 

Dr. S. When will you write ? 

I. To-day, to-morrow, soon, presently, immediately. 

J. Where is the book of Nature? 

M. Here, there, yonder, above, below, around, within. 

Dr. S. By means of adverbs, we can generally ex- 
press with single words what would otherwise require 
several words : as, How [in what manner] does he be- 
have ? Rudely [in a rude manner.] When [at what 
time] did you see him ? Where [in what place] was he ? 
He was very [in a high degree] angry. Why [for what 
reason] was he so [in such a degree] angry f She is ex- 
tremely [in the highest degree] beautiful. Do you think 
so. Do you think she is extremely beautiful. From these 
examples, you can see that many of our adverbs are 
equivalent in sense to prepositions and their objects 
with the adjectives belonging to them. A preposition 
and its object are, by some grammarians, regarded as 
an adjunct to the antecedent term of relation, equiva- 



THE PAHTS OF SPEECH. 73 

lent in sense to an adjective, an adverb, or a possessive : 
as, I am a citizen of Rome ; I am a Roman citizen. 
Write with care ; write carefully. He was the son of 
David; he was David's son. It will be the ruin of you ; 
it will be your ruin. 

P. P. Then, why not parse such phrases as ad- 
jectives or adverbs, or as nouns or pronouns in the 
possessive case? 

Dr. S. Because equivalence in sense does not always 
imply similarity in grammatical construction. But 
when the preposition or its object is omitted, and can 
not be conveniently supplied, such expressions may be 
parsed as adverbial phrases : as, I have seen him three 
times. She walks out every morning. They go to meet- 
ing twice a week. The snow was four feet deep. " My 
mouth, to be sure, is a trifle too wide." Utica is ninety- 
six miles from Albany. "Great Homer died three 
thousand years ago." There is nothing made in vain. 
" I have looked for you a great while, and have found 
you at last." " They talked about every thing in gen- 
eral, and nothing in particular." " He came from above." 
" A voice descended from on high." " O king live for 
ever." We have a great variety of adverbial phrases; 
as, at all, at last, at least, at most, at once, at present, in 
fine, in short, in vain, in general, from afar, from above, 
on high, by and by, now and then, for ever, &c. Select the 
adverbs in the sentences I give you, and tell what they 
are added to. 

I walk slowly and thoughtfully. 

M. Slowly and thoughtfully are added to ivalk. 

The birds sing sweetly, and hop about merrily. 

S. Sweetly is added to sing ; sing sweetly. 

P. About and merrily are added to hop ; hop about ; 
hop merrily. 

How carefully and gracefully she steps among the 
flowers. 

R. How is added to carefully and gracefully ; how 
carefully ; how gracefully. Carefully and gracefully are 
added to steps ; steps carefully ; steps gracefully. 



74 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



'Tis midnight on the mountain's brow, 
The cold round moon shines deeply down. 

0. Deeply and down are added to shines ; shines deeply 
down. 

Blue roll the waters, blue the sky 
Spreads like an ocean hung on high, 

T. On high is added to hung ; hung on high. 

Bespangled with those isles of light, 
So wildly, spiritually bright ; 
Who ever gazed upon them shining, 
And turned to earth without repining, 
Nor wished lor wings to flee away, 
And mix with their eternal ray ? " 
The waves on either shore lay there, 
Calm, clear, and azure as the air ; 
And scarce their foam the pebbles shook, 
But murmured meekly as the brook. 

Dr. 8. As verbs depend upon their subjects, and ad- 
jectives on nouns and pronouns, so do adverbs on the 
verbs, or adjectives, or prepositions, they are added to ; 
which swallow up their meaning, as it were, to modify 
their own : as, A very sour apple. The bird sings 
sweetly. Here the sense of very is absorbed in that of 
sour ; and sour, in apple, which contains the quality. 
Take away sour, and what becomes of very ? take away 
the apple, and what becomes of sour f The sense of 
sweetly is absorbed in that of sings ; and sings depends 
on bird; they are inseparably blended, both in thought 
and action': kill the bird, and what becomes of sings 
and siveetlyl Every sentence must have two principal 
parts ; the subject and the verb. The subject is the 
basis, and the verb, the essence of every sentence ; for 
we can not think without a subject. Now and then a 
thought extends beyond its subject to an object, linking 
them together. Sentences expressing such thoughts 
contain three principal parts ; the verb, its subject, and 
its object. All the other parts of any sentence are but 
adjuncts or appendages of these principal parts. The 
appendages of verbs are adverbs and adjunctive 
phrases ; of their subjects and their objects, adjectives 
or phrases joined to them by prepositions, hence called 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 75 

adjuncts to nouns and pronouns, and, by some gram- 
marians, parsed as adjectives. Sucli phrases generally 
begin with prepositions, and are adjuncts to the ante- 
cedent term of relation. When that happens to be an 
adjective or adverb, they are secondary adjuncts. We 
have an infinite variety of phrases used as adjuncts to 
nouns and pronouns, verbs and adjectives, whose mean- 
ing can not be expressed by single words ; for no lan- 
guage has an adequate supply of adjectives and adverbs 
equivalent to them in sense. Observe these few exam- 
ples, and then you will see : " At length, after a long 
search, along the shore, by moon-light, in our little 
boat, about midnight, we found the captain on a rock, 
half dead^with cold, fatigue, and hunger." *'God, who 
at sundry times and in divers manners spoke in time 
past unto the fathers by the prophets, hath in these last 
days spoken unto us by his Son." 

With passions unruffled, untainted with pride, 

By reason my life let me square ; 
The wants of my nature are cheaply supplied ; 

And the rest are but folly and care. 
How vainly, through infinite trouble and strife, 

The many their labor3 employ ! 
Since all that is truly delightful in life 

Is what all, if they please, may enjoy. 

R. Do you see that beautiful ship with all her sails 
unfurled? O! what a splendid subject for each one 
of us to build a sentence on ! 

Dr. S. To build a sentence on this subject, all you 
have to do, is to tell us what you think of the ship. 

W. She sails most beautifully. 

I. Sae fairly walks upon the water. 

J. She walks the waters like a think of life. 

8. How gracefully she moves before the breeze ! 

O. How gloriously she marches on the seas ! 

P. She walks in beauty, Ocean's peerless queen. 

R. She bears our flag aloft in triumph o'er our foes, - 

To Oceans wildest shore through every storm that blows. 
M. Majestically slow before the breeze, 

With flowing robes she walks upon the seas, 

Art's noblest triumph, Beauty's brightest gem 

That sparkles in her royal diadem. 



76 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

R. The bay is full of ships as beautiful as this. 

0. ! what a splendid fleet with crowded decks, 
and star-bespangled banners floating in the breeze ! 

L. I see about a dozen ironclads, and several mam- 
moth steamers, moving round like monsters of the deep. 
Hark ! what charming music ! They are playing Hail 
Columbia. 

Dr. S. These ships with their brave crews are guard- 
ians of liberty. How beautiful they look! Here is 
concentrated a little of our country's power and glory. 
"What a charming sight! It makes me feel quite patri- 
otic. It reminds me of Campbell's excellent naval ode, 
and suggests a slight alteration to adapt it to the logic 
of events. I hope our English cousins will excuse us, 
if we alter it a little, and that old John Bull himself, so 
long the master of the ocean, will not take offense. We 
don't intend to rob him of his glory, or to tread upon 
his coat-tail ; for we cheerfully acknowledge all his mer- 
its : we can truly say he is a glorious old fellow, and 
can whip every thing that moves upon the waters — 
except Brother Jonathan. Now let us sing this ode 
Americanized : 

Ye tars of fair Columbia ! 

Now masters of the seas ; 
Whose flag shall brave a thousand years, 

The battle and the breeze ! 
Your glorious standard launch again 

To match another foe ! 
And sweep through the deep, 

While the stormy tempests blow ; 
While the battle rages loud and long, 

And the stormy tempests blow. 

The spirits of your fathers 

Shall start from every wave, — 
For the deck it was their field of fame, 

And Ocean was their grave : 
With Foot and gallant Farragut 

Your manly hearts shall glow, 
As ye sweep through the deep, 

While the stormy tempests blow ; 
While the battle rages loud and long, 

And the stormy tempests blow. 

Columbia needs no bulwark, 
No towers along the steep ; 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 77 

Her march 13 o'er the mountain waves, 

Her home is on the deep. 
With thunders from her iron-clads, 

She quells the floods below — 
As they roar on the ghore, 

When the stormy tempests blow ; 
When the battle rages loud and long, 

And the stormy tempests blow. 

The star-bespangled banner 

Shall yet terrific burn ; 
Till danger's troubled night depart, 

And the star of peace return. 
Then, then, ye ocean warriors ! 

Our song and feast shall flow 
To the fame of your name, 

When the storm has ceased to blow ; 
When the fiery fight is heard do more, 

And the storm has ceased to blow. 

Dr. S. Pick out the adverbs in this ode, and then 
select every part of speech that we have explained. 

I. How many more parts of speech are there ? 

Dr. S. We have now explained all the parts of speech 
except a few little words, that connect words and sen- 
tences together : as, Kate can read and write ; but she 
never studied grammar or arithmetic. " We love him 
because he first loved us." Here and connects write to 
read ; but connects the sentence, She has never studied 
grammar or arithmetic, to the preceding sentence, Kate 
can read and write ; and or connects arithmetic to gram- 
mar. Because connects " He first loved us '," to "We love 
him." What shall we call such words as and, but, or, 
and because ? 

I. Connectives. 
- P. P. They are conjunctions, Ida. Why do you call 
them connectives ? 

I. Because they connect words and sentences. 

Dr. S. Your reason is a good one : intellectual phi- 
losophy, analogy, and common sense, sustain it. As 
they are connectors of our words and sentences, and not 
their connections or conjunctions, we should call them 
Connectives, or conjunctives, on the same principle 
of analogy as we call detectors of criminal detectives, 
and not detections. 



78 ENGLISH GRAM MAE. 

A connective is a word that connect words or 
phrases, sentences or paragraphs. 

P. Explain the difference in these expressions : Give 
me an apple and a pear. Give me an apple or a pear. 
You will learn, if you study. You will be ignorant, 
unless you study. 

M. The difference is so plain that a blind girl can see 
it And connects the words apple and pear, and also 
couples the ideas that they express : you ask for both 
an apple and a pear to be given to you together. Or 
connects the words, but disjoins the ideas that they ex- 
press : you ask for one alone, an apple or a pear to be 
given to you separately. If connects the sentence, you 
study to the sentence, you ivill learn, and also couples the 
thoughts that they express; for studying and learning 
are united in the mind. Unless connects the sentence, 
you study to the sentence, you will be ignorant, but dis- 
joins the thoughts expressed in these sentences ; for the 
thought of studying is separated in the mind from that 
of being ignorant. Therefore, and and if are copulative 
connectives ; but or and unless are disjunctive con- 
nectives. 

P. P. Disjunctive connectives ! What a contradict- 
ory, absurd expression ! 

M. Is it any more absurd than disjunctive conjunc- 
tions. 

P. P. Certainly : that is a customary grammatical 
expression, sanctioned by our best authorites. 

B. Disjunctive conjunctions! disjoining conjoiners! 
O, consistency ! thou art a jewel ! 

Dr. S. Her expression, Mr. Puzzle, is no more ab- 
surd than yours. Though paradoxical, it is grammati- 
cally and logically correct These words connect words 
and sentences together in the structure of our language, 
and yet disjoin the ideas and thoughts that they ex- 

Sress. But as the difference between copulative and 
isjunctive connectives is not generally understood by 
children, who have never studied logic or mathematical 
demonstrations, we will let it rest at present Many 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH. . 79 

words of an adverbial character are often used as con- 
nectives : as, " Think before you speak. When you 
speak, tell the truth. I found it where I left it. Do as 
you are bid. Can you tell me how this word is parsed ?" 
Different grammarians call such words conjunctive ad- 
verbs, adverbial conjunctions, connective adverbs, and 
adverbial connectives. Sometimes two or three words 
are used together as compound connectives, or connect- 
ive phrases : as, " I, as well as thou, am a man." " None 
of us can tell how long this continent has been inhab- 
ited." " Inasmuch as ye did it not to one of the least 
of these, ye did it not to me." Now, as I read a few 
sentences in the Bible, select the connectives, and tell 
us what they connect. 

Blessed are the merciful : for they shall obtain mercy. 

M. For is a connective : it connects, they shall obtain 
mercy to blessed are the merciful. 

Moreover when ye fast, be not as the hypocrites, of a sad countenance : 
for they disfigure their faces, that they may appear unto to men to fast. 

P. Moreover connects the following to the preceding 
paragraph ; when connects ye fast to be not as the hypo- 
crites, of a sad countenance; as connects the hypocrites 
[are] to be not of a sad countenance ; for connects they dis- 
figure their faces that they may appear unto men to fast, to 
when ye fast be not as the hypocrites, of a sad countenance ; 
and that connects they may appear unto men to fast, to 
they disfigure their faces. 

Ye are the salt of the earth : but if the salt have lost his savour, 
wherewith shall it be salted f 

S. But connects if the salt have lost his savour where- 
with shall it be salted, to ye are the salt of the earth ; and if 
connects the salt have lost his savour to wherewith shall 
it be salted f 

Agree with thine adversary quickly, while thou art in the way with 
bim ; lest at any time the adversary deliver thee to the judge. 

R. While connects thou art in the ivay with him, to 
agree with thine adversary quickly ; and lest connects at 



80 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

any time the adversary deliver thee to the judge, to agree 
with thine adversary quickly, while thou art in the way 
with him. 

Dr. S. Read the fifth, sixth, and seventh chapters of 
St. Matthew, select the connectives, and tell what each 
of them connects. 

W. I never understood these chapters half so well 
before. 

Dr. S. Connectives show us all the nice dependencies 
of our ideas and thoughts, the ties that hold them so 
mysteriously together : they are the magic links in rea- 
son's intellectual chain of pure ideas and bright ethereal 
thoughts. This sermon is a master-piece of literature 
and logic, full of beautiful ideas and thoughts, so beau- 
tifully expressed, that poetry can never equal it ; show- 
ing that its author is divine — so deep, and yet so clear ; 
so pure, so simple, yet sublime ; so child-like, yet so 
argumentative, and so methodically connected and ar- 
ranged ; condensing all the philosophy of ages ; full of 
everlasting truths, so plain, and yet beyond our com- 
prehension in their height and depth, connections, and 
dependencies. 

P. P. Don't you require your pupils to distinguish 
copulative from disjunctive conjunctions? 

Dr. S. We might divide connectives into three 
classes : copulative, disjunctive, and adverbial. But 
such a classification would embarrass rather than en- 
lighten learners. All these nice distinctions are more 
curious than useful. Some grammarians have divided 
them into a dozen different classes ; co-ordinate, subor- 
dinate, copulative, disjunctive, restrictive, comparative, 
concessive, conditional, illative, causal, corresponding, 
and complex. Connectives are the joints and hinges 
of discourse. Without them, we would be obliged to 
speak in separate sentences, and not be able to express 
a regular train of reasoning. How beautifully the 
thoughts expressed in mathematical demonstrations, 
hang and turn upon each other, held together by con- 
nectives! This may be observed in every argumenta- 
tive discourse. They are the couplings that hold to- 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 81 

gether Keason's lightning train of spirit-freighted cars, 
the fiery chariots of heaven-ascending thoughts ! 

M. Is whosoever a connective in this sentence: 
" Whosoever is angry with his brother without a cause, 
shall be in danger of the judgment?" 

P. P. Why no : it is a double relative. 

M. Don't it connect these sentences ? 

Dr. JS. To be sure it does. It is a wonderful word ; 
performing the offices of a pronoun and its antecedents, 
and a connective at once ; and having a two-fold case : 
it is the subject of two verbs ; is and shall be. This 
you will perceive by using an equivalent expression : 
If any man is angry with his brother without a cause, 
he shall be in danger of the judgment. 

& I can't exactly understand it, Dr. Syntax. 

Dr. S. I don't expect to have you understand it fully 
now. I will explain it thoroughly when we come to 
it in its proper order. Mary introduced it prema- 
turely. Now write a few short sentences consisting of 
nouns and verbs only, or, of pronouns and verbs, and 
then expand them gradually by introducing other parts 
of speech. 

R. Can't we make complete sentences of verbs alone ? 

Dr. S. Try, and see. 

B. Awake, arise, stop, listen, look, consider, beware. 

Dr. S. Every one of these verbs expresses a thought, 
and therefore, contains the essence of a sentence. But 
each of them has a subject implied ; for thou, ye, or 
you, is understood. As no action can take place with- 
out an actor, and no deed be done without a doer, and 
as there can be no attribute without a substance, or 
something real or imaginary to which it is ascribed, so 
no thought can be expressed without a subject. Con- 
sequently every verb must have a subject either ex- 
pressed or implied. 

P. P. In Latin we can make complete sentences of 
verbs alone without a subject: as, Vivit? Veni, vidi, 
vici 

P. We have never studied Latin, and of course, we 
cannot understand your Latin illustrations. 
6 



82 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Dr. S. Your philosophy is questionable. But, as we 
are teaching English grammar, we will not discuss it 
now. These children would derive no benefit from 
such a discussion. Wait till they have studied Latin. 
Never speak in Latin, Greek, or French, to English 
children, or in high-flown English which they cannot 
understand. Adapt your language to your audience, 
is the golden rule of rhetoric. Now get your slates, 
and write as I have just directed you. I hope these 
three bright, good-looking little girls that have been so 
attentive all the while, and kept up such a wonderful 
thinking, (like the Paddy's owl,) but have not said a 
word, will write their thoughts. 

Ann. We have never studied grammar. 

Dr. S. Can you read and write ? 

Kate. O yes ; about as well as some that study gram- 
mar. 

Dr. S. Then you know enough to join our grammar 
class. Choose your subjects, and write what you think 
of them. 

Flora. I can't think of any thing to write about 

K. So many thoughts are rushing through my mind, 
and glancing from one thing to another so quick that I 
can hardly tell what I think, or what I am thinking of. 

Dr. S. That is the trouble with us all. Our thoughts 
are too ethereal, numerous, and rapid, for our grasp ; 
they come and go before we can embody them in words. 
Fix your attention on some particular things, take no- 
tice what they do, then write what you think of them, 
with single words placed after their names. 

A. Birds fly. Ships sail. Waves roll. The sun 
shines. 

F. Phebe smiles. John laughs. Mr. Puzzle frowns. 

K. Flies buzz. Bees hum. Horses trot Lambs 
play. 

& John writes. He writes carelessly on his slate. 

I. Ann writes very beautifully with her new gold 
pen. 

P. Ida walks. She walks carefully among the 
flowers. 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 83 

M. Birds sing. These little birds sing sweetly. How 
sweetly they do sing, and hop about among the branches t 

These little birds sing sweetly on the trees, 
Among the branches waving in the breeae. 

R. Trees grow. Elm trees grow along the rive?. 
Wide-spreading elms grow large ' and beautiful along 
the river. 

W. Books are written. Many excellent books are 
written by good men. They are printed, folded, pressed, 
and bound. 

L. The sun rises. The earth rejoices. The flowers 
look up and smile. Fragrant odors and sweet music 
float on every breeze. 

When from the chambers of the east 

His journey he begins, 
He never tires nor stops to rest ; 

But round the world he shines. 
So, like the sun, would I fulfill 

The business of the day, 
Begin my work betimes, and still 

March on the heavenly way. 

Dr. S. Almost every thing that we observe has a 
great variety of attributes. One person takes notice of 
one attribute, and another person takes notice of 
another. Therefore, different people see the same thing 
in different lights, and have different thoughts on the 
same subject I will now select a subject for each one 
of you to build sentences on. 

J. Let us have that old lame horse for a subject 

Dr. S. Very well. What do you think of him ? 

B. He looks as if he were mortgaged to the crows. 

H. O, how lame he is ! he can hardly walk. 

P. He is almost starved to death ; he gnaws the 
grass down into the very roots, and eats the turf. 

L. Through what sad changes he has passed ! Four 
years ago, when he belonged to Mr. Smith, he was the 
finest horse in town. How beautifully he used to move 
before his carriage ! If he could but talk, what a story 
he could tell ! He was stolen by a rebel officer, and 



84 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

captured by a Union soldier, whom he carried safely 
through the thickest of the fights, in all of General 
Sherman's battles, from Chattanooga to North Carolina. 
When the war was over, he was sold to a copperhead 
boatman, and driven on the canal till he was so used 
up that he could work no more, and then turned out to 
pick his living in the street, or die. 

S. Poor old horse ! how he is galled and bruised ! 
At every step he takes, how piteously he groans ! as if 
he were complaining to his Maker of the cruelty and 
base ingratitude of man. 

J. He shall not be left to starve in the street He 
shall be turned into our pasture, and have plenty of 
good clover to eat. None of the defenders of our glo- 
rious Union, shall be so shamefully abused. 

Dr. S. The horse is a noble animal, and very useful. 
He has often been the subject of the naturalist and 
and poet : as, 

Steed answers steed in high and boastful neighing. 

The bounding steed you pompously bestride, 
Shares with his lord the pleasure and the pride. 

Each horseman drew his battle blade, 
And furious every charger neighed. 

M. The best thoughts on this subjects that I ever 
read are in the book of Job, beginning thus : " Hast 
thou given the horse strength ? hast thou clothed his 
neck with thunder?" 

Dr. & Read the whole chapter, and distinguish all 
the parts of speech. Continue reading and distinguish- 
ing them till you know them at a glance. I will now 
express some thoughts in poetry without mentioning 
the name of the subject, and see if you can guess it. 

She brings light out of darkness, turns night into day, 

And drives Superstition and Error away ; 

She spreads her bright mantle of light on the deep, 

And arouses old Chaos from darkness and sleep ; 

She abides with bright seraphs — to mortals is given ; 

She visits the earth ; but her throne is in Heaven. 

In the beauty of holiness shining above, 

With her sweet beaming brightness all nature she cheers 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 85 

She enlightens all eyes, and each heart fills with love, 
With her genial warmth soul to soul she endears. 

Yes, high above the everlasting hills, 
She sits enthroned, and all creation fills 
With holy light ; yet looking up with beaming face 
To the great source of light for every heavenly grace. 
She fills all Heaven with pure empyreal light, 
With radiance sweet, yet so intensely bright, 
That glowing angels tremble to behold 
Her splendor flooding all the streets of gold ; 
Yet gaze entranced upon her peerless beauty t 
And listen to her voice to learn their duty. 
She fills the earth with mild celestial day, 
And gently melts the captive's chains away ; 
She makes hard-hearted tyrants learn to glow r 
And feel sweet sympathy for others' woe ; 
She breaks all fetters, makes the blind to see 
And learn that all who know her shall be free. 

O'er Nature's realms she spreads her cheering rays, 
Where 'er through space a wandering comet strays ; 
Shines in the sun, and sheds her beams afar, 
Smiles in the moon, and twinkles iu each star ; 
Glitters in every dew-drop on the flowers; 
Sweetly descends in all our summer showers ; 
Deep in the bosom of her smiling God reposes ; 
Yet blushes in the violets and roses ; 
Fills all eternity and boundless space ; 
Dwells in the heart of every child of grace ; 
Is heard in old Niagara's awful roar, 
In mountain billows dashing on the shore, 
In mad tornadoes, and in zephyrs mild ; 
Is seen in blooming fields and deserts wild ; 
Seen in the lightning's glare, heard in the thunder ; 
Fills every pious heart with awe and wonder ; 
Vibrates in every gentle note of love 
When Nature's sweetest music fills the grove; 
In silent meditation's still small voice 
Is heard, and makes the inmost soul rejoice ; 
In mental visions glorious and bright 
Is seen, to cheer the gloomy hours of night ; 
Pervades great Nature's mighty fabric fair, 
In every odor that perfumes the air, 
In genial warmth that wakens all her powers, 
In every hue and tint of herbs and flowers, 
In every color that bedecks the sky, 
Or makes the landscape charming to the eye, 
In every rapture that her scenes impart, 
In each sensation, each emotion of the heart, 
In every thought the drooping spirit cheers, 
In every relic of departed years, 
In each remembrance treasured in the brain, 
Of love or hatred, pleasure, grief, or pain ; 



86 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Inspires each bosom with her vital breath ; 
Gives peace through life, triumphant joy in death ; 
Presides o'er every branch of human knowledge, 
From ABC, through every school and college ; 
In shining raiment clothes each spotless mind ; 
Adorns the lowly and the most refined ; 
Cherishes youth, invigorates old age ; 
The rudest savage and most learned sage 
Instructs ; confounds her foes, exalts her friends ; 
Enlightens every nation, and attends 
Life's journey from the cradle to the grave ; 
Frowns on the tyrant, and befriends the slave ; 
Despises all concealment, and defies 
The powers of darkness and the sire of lies, 
With calm composure beaming from her eyes ; 
Teaches the lame to walk, the dumb to sing ; 
And makes the beggar richer than the king : 
As he looks up to mansions in the sky, 
And sees the countless shining worlds on high, 
Bright gems that gild this dark terrestrial ball, 
She smiling says, " Your father made them all." 

Though mild and gentle, nothing can withstand 
Her power : all nature moves at her command. 
All things in Heaven and earth her voice obey 
But erring man, poor reptile of a day ! 
To her great power and majesty belong : 
With gentle wisdom she subdues the strong. 
Archangels, seraphs bright, and saints, depend 
Upon her word, and all her steps attend : ■ 
She is their guide, their counselor, and friend. 
She charms their hearts ; she leads their steps aright, 
And God himself rejoices in her fight ; 
Deep in his holy heart she is impressed, 
The brightest jewel treasured in his breast. 

R. This is quite a riddle. But I used to know 
better one. I will repeat what I can recollect of it. 

It was whispered in heaven, and muttered in hell ; 

And echo caught faintly the sound as it fell ; 

On the confines of earth 'twas permitted to rest; 

And the depths of the ocean its presence confessed. 

It is seen in the lightning, and heard in the thunder ; 

'Twill be found in the spheres, when they're riven asunder. 

It i3 given to man with his earliest breath ; 

Assists at his birth, and attends him in death ; 

Presides o'er his happines, honor, and health ; 

Is the prop of his house, and the end of his wealth. 

It begins every hope, every wish it must bound ; 

And, though unassuming, with monarchs is crowned. 

In the heaps of the miser 'tis hoarded with care ; 

But is sure to be lost in his prodigal heir. 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 87 

Without it the soldier and sailor may roam ; 

But wo to the wretch who expels it from home. 

In the whispers of conscience its voice will be found, 

Nor e'er in the whirlwind of passion be drowned. 

It softens the heart, and, though deaf to the ear, 

It will make it acutely and instantly hear. 

In the shade let it rest like a delicate flower — 

0, breathe on it softly ! it dies in an hour. 

Dr. S. Distinguish all the parts of speech in these 
two pieces, and in the sentences that you composed just 
now about the horse and other subjects. 



CONVERSATION THIRD. 



THE VARIATIONS OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 

J. Dr. Syntax, I believe you told us that the name 
of anything that we can see or think of is a noun. Has 
every thing that we can see or think of a name. 

Dr. S. Look around you, and observe the countless 
multitude and vast variety of things that are presented 
to your view. Consider, that all you can see is but a 
little speck of creation, and answer this question your- 
self. Can you give a name to everything that lives 
and moves upon the earth, or in the air or water, to 
every rock, stone, beast, bird, fish, insect, tree, herb, 
flower, and leaf? Can you give names to all the 
flowers in this garden, or to all the leaves and blossoms 
on this tree, so that each one may have a different 
name ? 

J. "Why no : and if I could, who could remember 
them? 

M. When you speak of anything, how can you 
make us understand what you mean without some 
name to call it by ? 

J. That question is too hard for me : ask Dr. Syntax. 

Dr. & This is done by our power of generalization, 



88 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

one of the most wonderful faculties of the human 
mind, by which we arrange into classes all things intel- 
lectual and material ; fixing our attention on some real 
or imaginary resemblance, and assigning to each class 
a name that is equally applicable to every individual 
that belongs to that class. Thus, all that have a being 
we call beings; all created beings we call creatures; 
spiritual beings we call spirits ; human beings we call 
men, women, boys, girls, &c. Animate creatures we 
call animals ; winged animals we call fowls, birds, or 
insects ; four-footed animals, quadrupeds or beasts ; 
creeping animals, snakes, serpents, worms, or reptiles; 
and animals that live in water we call fish. Each of 
these names represents millions of individuals that 
resemble one another ; and because they all have cer- 
tain attributes in common, are arranged under one class, 
which is subdivided in several subordinate classes, that 
are called species, on account of their different points 
of resemblance. Thus, swans, ducks, geese, turkeys, 
owls, hawks, vultures, eagles, pigeons, crows, &c, are 
species of fowls. Dogs, wolves, deer, sheep, bears, 
lions, tigers, horses, buffaloes, and elephants, are species 
of beasts. There are also many different species of 
fish, snakes, worms, and insects, classified according to 
their mutual resemblance. Mankind are divided into 
various classes with regard to their nationality, religion, 
talents, education, occupation, habits, titles, &c. : as 
Greeks, Italians, Spaniards, and Americans ; Christians, 
Jews, Mahometans, and Pagans ; statesmen, orators, 
and poets ; farmers, merchants, and mechanics ; liars, 
thieves, and drunkards ; earls, dukes, kings, and empe- 
rors. All such names are called common nouns, be- 
cause each of them is equally applicable to every 
individual of a whole class or species. To distinguish 
individual persons, places, or things, from all others of 
the same kind, called by the same common name, we 
use such nouns as William, Robert, Mary, Greece, 
Rome, America. We therefore have two kinds of 
nouns ; proper and common. 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 89 

A proper noun is the name of an individual. 
A common noun is the name of a species or 
class. 

K. I can't exactly understand the difference be* 
tween a proper and a common noun. 

Dr. S. How many brothers and sisters have you ? 

K. Four brothers and three sisters. 

Dr. S. What are their names ? 

K. Peter, Henry, Charley, and Jacob ; Martha, Ruth, 
and Ida. 

Dr. S. When you want to distinguish one of them 
from all the rest, if you should say my brother or my 
sister, who would know which one you mean? 

K. That would mean any of them: I would say, 
my brother Peter, Henry, Charles, or Jacob, my sister 
Martha, Ruth, or Ida. 

A. That is plain enough. Brother and sister are 
common nouns ; and Peter, Henry, Charles, and Jacob r 
Martha, Ruth, and Ida, proper nouns. 

Dr. S. How do you distinguish all the flowers in 
this garden ? 

F. By different names; as, lilies, roses, pinks and 
violets. 

A. Are lilies, roses, pinks, and violets, proper nouns ? 

Dr. S. What do you call that flower in your hand ? 

A. Rose. 

Dr. S. What is the name of this? and that? and 
that? 

A. Why, rose. 

Dr. S. What do you call all these on this bush ? 

A. Roses ; and all of those on all the other bushes. 

Dr. S. Then rose is a very common name applicable 
to millions of individual flowers of the same species. 
So are lily, pink, and violet. 

A. I see ! I see ! such names as these are common 
nouns. 

Dr. S. Persons, places, and domestic animals, are 
generally distinguished by proper names. Alexander is 
a proper noun, the name of an individual man. Bit- 



90 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

cephalus is a proper noun, the name of an individual 
horse. And Boston is a proper noun, the name of an 
individual city. 

H. Then Dick and Poll, Watch and Rover, Moll and 
Cherry, Buck and Bright, are proper, nouns, the names 
of individual birds, dogs, cows, and oxen. 

Dr. S. All the proper names of countries, states, 
counties, towns, cities, villages, rivers, mountains, isl- 
ands, seas, lakes, &c, that you can find in your geogra- 
phy or atlas, are proper nouns. Mention a few. 

F. Europe, Asia, Africa, America, France, Spain, 
Ohio, Pennsylvania, Oneida, Western, Utica, Western- 
ville, Mohawk, Etna, Cuba, Mediterranean, Erie. 

Dr. S. Well done, Flora ! I will now explain the 
variations of nouns and pronouns, called by some gram- 
marians, their modifications, properties, accidents, in- 
flections, &c. They have four kinds of variations ; 
gender, number, person, and case. 

Gender is the distinction of objects with regard 
to sex. 

There are three genders; the masculine, the 
feminine, and the neuter. 

The masculine gender denotes the male sex. 

The feminine gender denotes the female sex. 

The neuter gender denotes neither sex. 

The names of males are in the masculine gender ; the 
names of females, in the feminine ; anil the names of all 
other things, (when used literally,) are in the neuter 
gender. Mention some nouns in each gender. 

W. Man, lion, king, duke, emperor, father, and son, are 
in the masculine gender ; woman, lioness, queen, duchess, 
empress, mother, and daughter, in the feminine ; and sun, 
moon, earth, city, science, truth, and virtue, in the neuter. 

R. The morning sun shines from the East, 

And spreads his glories to the West : 
So Science sheds her lucid ray 
O'er lands which long in darkness lay. 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 91 

Are sun and science in the neuter gender ? 

Dr. S. Yes, when they are used literally. But they 
are here personified ; and sun is figuratively in the mas- 
culine, and science, in the feminine gender. To animate 
and beautify discourse, we frequently ascribe life and 
action to inanimate things or abstract ideas ; represent- 
ing them as males or females on account of some fancied 
resemblance. Then their names are figuratively mas- 
culine or feminine. On the other hand, the names of 
animals, whose sex is unknown or disregarded, are often 
used as neuter : as, " The toad must not spit its venom 
amoBg turtle doves." " Naomi took the child, and laid 
it in her bosom." 

In ancient times, as we are told, 
A peasant found a serpent still and cold. 
He took it home, and warmed it into life ; 
And then it bit his children and his wife. 

S. How is the gender of such nouns determined? 

Dr. S. By the pronouns that represent them ; for a 
pronoun and its antecedent must be in the same gender. 
In our language, the sexes are distinguished by differ- 
ent words: as, boy, girl; brother, sister; buck, doe; bull, 
cow.; drake, duck ; friar, nun ; gander, goose ; husband, 
wife ; king, queen : or by a difference of termination : 
as, abbot, abbess; actor, actress; administrator, adminis- 
tratrix; heir, heiress; hero, heroine; poet, poetess; wid- 
ower, widow. There are some nouns in the masculine 
gender for which we have no corresponding term in the 
feminine, and some in the feminine gender for which 
we have no corresponding term in the masculine : as, 
sailor, pirate, captain, general, admiral, squire; prude, 
shrew, termagant, virago, amazon. Some nouns are 
equally applicable to males and females, and are either 
masculine or feminine, or both, according to their ap- 
plication : as, parent, child, cousin, friend, neighbor, pupil, 
scholar, student, animal, beast, bird. If I say John is my 
friend, then friend is masculine. If I say Pliebe is my 
friend, it is feminine. If I say you are all friends, it is 
masculine and feminine. If I say " A friend should 



92 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

bear a friend's infirmities" — " O ! tell me I yet have a 
friend !" it is masculine or feminine. 

Number is the distinction of unity and plurality. 

F. What do unity and plurality mean ? 
Dr. S. Unity means but one ; and plurality, more 
than one. 

There are two numbers; the singular and the 
plural. 

The singular number denotes but one. 
The plural number denotes more than one. 

E. In what number are chair, bench, tree, and bush? 

J. In the singular; for each of them means but one. 

Dr. & How do you speak them when you mean 
more than one? 

J. I say chairs, benches, trees, bushes, and make them 
plural. 

Dr. & What is added to these nouns to make them 
plural ? 

J. To chair and tree s is added, and es to bench and 
bush. 

P. P. The plural number is regularly formed by 
adding s to singular nouns, or es to such as end in s, sh, 
ch soft, x or o. 

Dr. & Write pen, glass, lash, ivatch, fox, goose, hero, 
and folio, in the plural. Ida, read what you have 
written. 

I. Pens, glasses, lashes, watches, foxes, gooses, he- 
roes, folioes. 

Dr. S. All of you that have written gooses, raise your 
hands. what a flock of gooses ! Is there any other 
error? 

R. Folioes is not written right : it should be folios. 

I. I wrote them all according to Mr. Puzzle's rule. 

P. P. Almost every rule has some exceptions. Sev- 
eral nouns that ends in o become plural by assuming s 
only; as, bamboos, cameos, cantos, embryos, juntos, quartos, 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 93 

seraglios, solos, tyros ; and some are irregular in forming 
the plural. 

Dr. S. Write man, woman, child, ox, foot, goose, tooth, 
louse, mouse, die, and penny, in the plural. 

B. Men, women, children, oxen, feet, geese, teeth, 
lice, mice, dice, pence. Dies and pennies mean the 
stamps and coins. 

Dr. S. If any of you disagree with him, raise your 
hands. Write lady, valley, Tully, life, fife, loaf, calf, cuff, 
and staff, in the plural. 

W. Ladies, vallies, Tullys, lives, fives, loaves, calves, 
cuffs, staffs. 

Dr. S. A common noun that ends in y preceded by 
a consonant, changes it into ies in the plural, and some 
nouns that end inforfe, change it into ves. If any of 
you disagree with him, raise your hands. There's one 
hand up. What is the error, Phebe ? 

P. Vallies, Jives, and staffs, should be valleys, fifes, and 
stavesr 

Dr. S. Write deer, sheep, swine, means, news, odds, 
apparatus, series, species, and amends, in the plural. 

S. They have the same form in both numbers. 

Dr. S. Write hay, wheat, pride, and anger, in the 
plural. 

M. They have no plural. 

Dr. S. Write ashes, riches, annals, archives, scissors, 
snuffers, shears, tongues, embers, ides, and vespers, in the 
singular. 

L. They have no singular. 

Dr. S. Write handful, pailful, aid-de-camp, son-in-law, 
man-servant, bondman, and Mussulman, in the plural. 

I. Handfuls, pailfuls, aids-de-camp, sons-in-law, men- 
servants, bondsmen, Musselmen. 

M. Men-servants, bondsmen, and Mussulmen, should 
be man-servants, bondmen, and Mussulmans. 

Dr. S. Write the plural of alumnus, automaton, axis, 
basis, bandit, beau, cherub, datum, emphasis, formula, ge- 
nus, index, magus, medium, radius, seraph, and stamen. 

B. Alumni, automata, axes, bases, banditti, beaux, 



94 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

cherubs, data, emphases, formulas, genera, indexes, magi, 
mediums, radii, seraphs, stamina. 

P. P. Cherubs, formulas, indexes, mediums, and seraphs, 
shoud be cherubim, formula?, indices, media, and seraphim. 

Dr. iS. Robert is sustained by good authority, and 
by the genius of our language, which is destined to 
prevail over pedantry. These Hebrew, Greek, and 
Latin terminations are becoming obsolete, and they will 
soon be laid aside. When foreign words are perma- 
nently adopted, they must all be naturalized, and qui- 
etly submit to Anglo-Saxon laws and customs. If 
they are descended from patrician families, they must 
not put on airs, but be on speaking terms with common 
English words : hereditary titles of nobility are not 
permitted in our great republic of letters. Now write 
a, b, c, d, e, f g, h, i; 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9, 
in the plural. 

P. A's, b's, c's, d's, e's, f's, g's, h's, i's ; l's, 2's, 3's, 
4's, 5's, 6's, 7's, 8's, 9's. 

Dr. S. As language is the medium through which 
we communicate our thoughts, ideas and feelings to 
each other, it requires a person speaking, and a person 
spoken to, and something spoken of. This gives rise 
to what grammarians call person. 

Person is the distinction of the person speak- 
ing, the person spoken to, and the person or thing 
spoken of. 

A. How many persons are there ? 

J. Three, of course ; the first, the second, and the 
third. 

F. Only three ! Why, John ! there are as many per- 
sons as there are people in the world. 

Dr. S. You are right in one sense, Flora, and wrong 
in another. In common conversation, when we speak 
of persons, we mean people ; but we use this word in 
grammar as a scientific term, to represent a person or a 
thing as speaking, spoken to, or spoken of 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 95 

The first person denotes the speaker. 

The second person denotes the person or thing 
spoken to. 

The third person denotes the person or thing 
spoken of. 

When I say, Flora, give me that rose ; Flora is in 
the second person, because it denotes the person spoken 
to; me is in the first person, because it denotes the 
speaker ; and rose is in the third person, because it de- 
notes the thing spoken of. 

M. Is the name of the speaker always in the first 
person ? 

Dr. S. Very seldom, if ever. The speaker very 
rarely uses his own name, but a pronoun representing 
it ; and when he does, he generally uses it in the third 
person, and sometimes in the second. Thus says old 
Jack Falstaff, " If there were not two or three and fifty 
upon poor old Jack, then I am no two-legged cieature, 
Go your ways, old Jack.' 1 ' 1 King Eichard says of himself. 
"Richard loves Richard;" and Seged says to himself, 
" Why, Seged, dost thou not partake of the blessings 
which thou bestowest?" If I should say, Flora, give 
old Dr. Syntax that rose, would Dr. Syntax be in tho 
first person? 

M. No, sir ; but in the third. Is the name of the 
person spoken to always in the second person ? 

Dr. S. Generally, but not always. There is a sort 
of delicate, indirect mode of address that puts it in the 
third person, also appellatives applied to the person 
spoken to : as, Will Flora give me that rose ? " Let 
not the Icing say so." "Will the Lord be angry for 
ever?" " Shall not the Judge of all the earth do right ?" 
Sometimes appellatives applied to the speaker as well 
as the person addressed are in the third person : as, 
" Let thy servant, I pray thee, speak a word in my lord's 
ears?" "Thy servants are shepherds, both wo and also 
our fathers." "Pity the sorrows of a poor old man." 
Select the nouns and pronouns in these lines, and tell 
what person each of them is in. 



96 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

0, lady fair, those silks of mine, 
Are beautiful and rare — 

& Lady is in the second person; silks, in the third; 
and mine, in the first. 

The richest web of the Indian loom, 
Which beauty's self might wear ; — 

0. Web, loom, which, beauty's, and self, are in the third 
person. 

And those pearls are pure as thine own fair neck, 
With whose radiant light they vie ; 

1. Pearls, neck, whose, light, and they, are in the third 
person ; and thine, in the second. 

I have brought them with me a weary way — 
Will my gentle lady buy ? 

W. I, me, and my, are in the first person ; and them, 
way, and lady, in the third. 

W. Are nouns ever in the first person ? 

Dr. S. No : the person speaking uses the pronoun i" 
to represent himself as the speaker, and we to repre- 
sent himself and others associated with him. These 
words are always in the first person ; thou, ye, and you, 
in the second ; and he, she, it, and they, in the third. 

P. P. When nouns are in apposition with / or we, 
are they not in the first person? 

Dr. & I think not But on this point the doctors 
disagree. Though nouns and pronouns in apposition 
must be in the same case, they may be in different per- 
sons : as, "I the Lord have spoken it." "They have 
forsaken me the fountain of living waters." 

But we, their sons, a pampered race of men, 
Are dwindled down to threescore years and ten. 

Liberty I the prisoner's pleasing dream, 
The poet's muse, his passion and his theme; 
Genius is thine, and thou art Fancy's nurse ; . 
Lost without thee the enuobling powers of verse. 

happiness ! our being's end and aim ! 
Good, pleasure, ease, content, whatever ihy name ; 
That something still which prompts the eternal sigh, 
For which we bear to live or dare to die. 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 97 

P. P. Do not pronouns always agree with their 
antecedents, in gender, number, and person, if correctly 
used? 

Dr. S. Pronouns necessarily depend on their ante- 
cedents for their gender and number, as they have no 
definite signification of their own, but represent what- 
ever is expressed by the nouns for which they stand. 
But they do not derive their person from their antece- 
dents ; for, in its technical sense, it is no natural attri- 
bute of any thing whatever, but depends entirely on 
the accidental circumstance of one's speaking, being 
spoken to, or spoken of. What are the antecedents of 
thou and me in this sentence ? " Then Agrippa said unto 
Paul, Almost thou persuadest me to be a Christian." 

P. P. Paul is the antecedent of thou, and Agrippa 
the antecedent of me. 

Dr. jS. - Do they agree in person ? Are not Agrippa 
and Paul both in the third person, while me is in the 
first, and thou, in the second ? 

P. P. Almost every rule has some exceptions. It 
has become a standing maxim that exceptions prove 
the rule. 

Dr. S. Exceptions prove the rule to be imperfect; 
for a perfect rule has no exceptions. This can properly 
be said of definitions too. In framing sentences, we 
give our nouns and pronouns different forms, positions, 
and constructions, to express the subjects and the ob- 
jects of our thoughts, and all the nice relations and 
dependencies of our ideas, arising from the different 
relations, actions, circumstances, and surroundings of 
external objects: as, " He watches the croiv, and the 
crow watches him." "The law rules the poor man; 
and the rich man rules the law." "My purse is in 
your hand : your hand is in my purse." " I know them, 
and they know me." See how these nouns and pro- 
nouns are varied in their form, position, and construc- 
tion, /represents the subject of the thought expressed 
by know, and them, the object, in the first clause of the 
last sentence ; and they represents the subject, and me, 
7 



98 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

the object, in the last clause. This kind of variation 
is called case. 

Case is that form or position of a noun or pro- 
noun which shows what construction it has in the 
sentence. 

Our nouns and pronouns have but three cases ; 
the nominative, the possessive, and the objective. 

The nominative case simply denotes the name 
of a person or thing, or the subject of a thought. 

The possessive case denotes possession or own- 
ership. 

The objective case denotes the object of a 
thought or of a relation. 

By observing the form of a pronoun, you can gene- 
rally tell what case it is in ; for most of our pronouns 
have an appropriate form for each case : 7", thou, he, she, 
toe, ye, they, and who, are always in the nominatire 
case ; my, thy, his, its, our, your, their, and whose, in the 
possessive ; me, thee, him, us, them, and ichom, in the 
objective ; it and you, either in the nominative or the 
objective ; and her, either in the possessive or the ob- 
jective. Mine, thine, hers, ours, yours, and theirs, have 
a sort of twofold case, representing the possessors and 
the things possessed, and being in the possessive case, 
and also in the nominative or the objective, according 
to their construction : as, How will you swap books ? 
Will you give me yours for mine? 

True friendship through all change endures : 
Your friends are mine and mine are yours. 

B. I don't exactly understand these twofold cases. 

Br. S. In sense and construction, mine and yours are 
here equivalent to my friends and your friends : as, Your 
friends are my friends, and my friends are your friends. 
Compare this with the beautifully brief expression : 
Your friends are mine and mine are yours ; where two 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 99 

ideas and two cases are contained in one short word. 
Such words, like double roses, are to me the fairest 
flowers of speech, the curiosities of language. 

S. They are too curious for me to analyze. 

W. Single cases are too hard for me. 

Dr. S. Excuse my dullness. I have introduced these 
twofold cases prematurely. Common sense might teach 
me better. You must learn the easiest and simplest 
cases first, and gradually advance to harder ones. Next 
week I will explain them all, and make hard cases easy. 

I. How can we tell what case a noun is in ? 

Dr. $ Our nouns are never varied in their form on 
account of case except in the possessive, which is gen- 
erally marked with an apostrophe, followed by s ; as, 
John's book. Their other cases are determined by their 
position or construction. When a noun or pronoun is 
in the nominative case, its usual position is before a 
verb as its subject, and after a verb or preposition when 
in the objective case : as, " Proud men never have friends; 
neither in. prosperity, because then they know nobody ; 
nor in adversity, because then nobody knows them." As 
pronouns generally have different forms for different 
cases, they are placed before or after verbs in either case, 
without producing ambiguity ; for by their form we 
know their case, whatever their position : as, " Whom 
ye ignorantly worship, him declare Junto you." But as 
nouns have the same form for the nominative and the 
objective case, we cannot ascertain their case except by 
their position or construction, or the sense and context. 
Sometimes the usual order is reversed, especially in 
poetry: as, "In graceful ringlets waved his hair." 
" Cosmetic art no tincture can afford, the faded features 
to restore." 

L. What is your general rule for distinguishing the 
cases ? 

Dr. S. Find all the verbs and prepositions in the 
sentence, and inquire with who or ivhat before each 
verb ; and the answers will be in the nominative : then 
inquire with wliom or what after each verb and preposi- 
tion ; and the answers will be in the objective case. 



100 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Inquire with, whose before a noun ; and you will find 
the possessive case. Now ascertain the cases in the 
sentences I give you. 

Thy love the power of thought bestowed: 

R. Bestowed is a verb and of a preposition. What bestowed ? Love. 
Whose lore ? Thy love. Then love is in the nominative case, and thy 
in the possessive. Thy love bestowed what? Power. Of what? Thought. 
Then power and thought are in the objective case. 

To thee my thoughts would soar. 

M. Would soar is a verb, and to a preposition. What would soar ? 
TJioughts. Whose thoughts ? My thoughts. Then thoughts is in the 
nominative case, and my in the possessive. My thoughts would soar 
what? Nothing: would soar has no object. To whom? Thee. Then 
thee is in the objective case. 

Thy mercy o'er my life has flowed : 

P. What has flowed ? Mercy. Then mercy is in the nominative case, 
the subject of 1ms flowed. O'er what? Life. Then life is in the objec- 
tive case, the object of o'er. 

That mercy I adore. 

7. Who adore? I. I adore what? Mercy. Then /is in the nomina- 
tive case, and mercy in the objective ; for / is the subject of adore, and 
mercy, the object. 

Br. S. The subject and the object are occasionally separated from the 
.verb by intervening words, and now and then by several lines ; as, 

A Grecian youth of talents rare, 
Whom Plato's philosophic care 
Had formed lor virtue's nobler view, 
By precept and example too, 
Would often boast his matchless skill 
To curb the steed and guide the wheel. 

8. Would boast is a verb. Who would boast ? Youth. Would boast 
what ? Skill. Whose skill ? His. Then youth is in the nominative case ; 
skill, in the objective ; r.nd his, in the possessive. 

W. Had formed is a verb : so are to curb and guide. What had 
formed ? Care. Whose care ? Plato's. Had formed what ? W/iom, 
representing vouth. Then care is in the nominative case, Plato's in the 
possessive, aiid ichom in the objective. To curb what ? and guide what ? 
Steed and wheel. Then steed is the object of to curb, and wheel the object 
of guide, and therefore in the objective case. 

L. Of, for and by are prepositions. Of what ? Talents. For what ? 
View. Whose view? Virtue's. By what ? Precept and example. Then 
ialcnU, view, precept, and example, are in the objective case, and virtue's 
in the possessive. 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 101 

Oh ! lives there, Heaven ! beneath thy dread expanse, 
One hopeless, dark Idolater of Chance ? 

F. Who lives ? Idolater. Then Idolater is the subject of lives. 

Dr. S. That's right, Flora. If you persevere, you'll 
beat these old grammarians. How many of you that 
can read and write have never studied grammar ? 

K Four. 

Dr. S. Take your seats together. Give me your at- 
tention half an hour, and let us see what you can learn. 

H. May we join this grammar class ? 

Dr. S. Certainly : take your seats right here at the 
head, close to old Dr. Syntax himself. Now look 
around, and tell me the names of what you see. 

H. Books, chairs, benches, trees, cows, horses, men 
and women, boys and girls. 

Dr. jS. Are these proper or common nouns ? 

A. Common, because each of them is the name of a 
species or class : there are a great many books, chairs, 
benches, trees, cows, horses, men and women, boys and 
girls. 

Dr. S. What are the names of these boys and girls? 

D. John. Edward, Henry, and David ; Flora, Kate, 
and Ann. 

Dr. S. Are these nouns proper or common ? 

J. Proper, because they are the names of individual 
boys and girls, distinguishing them from others. 

Dr. S. In what gender are these nouns? 

K. John, Edward, Henry, David, horses, men, and 
boys, are in the masculine gender, because they are the 
names of males ; cows, girls, and women, Flora, Kate, 
and Ann, are in the feminine, because they are the 
names of females ; and books, chairs, benches, and trees, 
are in the neuter gender, because they are the names 
of things that are neither male nor female. 

Dr. S. Pick out the nouns in what I say, and then 
tell whether they are proper or common, and what gen- 
der they are in : I see a gentleman and lady walking 
in the garden. 



102 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

K. Gentleman is a common noun, in the masculine gender ; lady is a 
common noun, in the feminine gender ; and garden is a common noun, 
in the neuter gender. 

Hiram, king of Tyre, sent messengers to David. 

J. Hiram is a proper noun, in the masculine gander ; king is a com- 
mon noun, in the masculine gender ; Tyre is a proper noun, in the neuter 
gender ; and messengers is a common noun, in the masculine gender. 

F. How do you know this noun is in the masculine gender? Perhaps 
the messengers were women. 

J. I presume that they were men ; for women were not sent as mes- 
sengers to kings in those days. 

H. You have not picked out all the nouns. David is a proper noun, 
in the masculine gender. 

Dr. iS. Look out my lad ; for we have sharp-eyed 
critics watching us. 

Ye have heard that it hath been said, Thou shalt 
love thy neighbor, and hate thine enemy. 

A. Neighbor and enemy are common nouns, in the masculine or femi- 
nine gender. 

But I say unto you, Love your enemies. 

K. Enemies is a common noun, in the masculine and feminine gen- 
ders. 

P. P. These nouns should be parsed as masculine ; 
for in all languages the masculine gender takes the 
preference. 

Dr. S. Mr. Puzzle, Ann and Kate are right, exactly : 
they are guided by good common sense and reason. 
Thine enemy may be a man or woman ; and so may 
thy neighbor. The enemies that we are here com- 
manded to love, are both men and women. Christ re- 
garded women's rights as well as men's. In what 
number are these nouns ? 

F. Neighbor is in the singular number, because it 
denotes but one ; and so is enemy : but enemies is in the 
plural number, because it denotes more than one. 

Dr. S. Select the nouns in what I read, and tell us 
whether they are proper or common, and what gender 
and number they are in. " Saul and Jonathan were 
lovely and pleasant in their lives, and in their death 
they were not divided : they were swifter than eagles, 
they were stronger than lions." 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 103 

J. Said and Jonathan are proper nouns, in the masculine gender and 
singular number. 

A. Lives is a common noun, in the neuter gender and plural numbjer. 

F. Death is a common noun, in the neuter gender and singular 
number. 

K. Eagles and lions are common nouns, in the masculine gender and 
plural number. 

Ye daughters of Israel, weep over Saul. 

J. Daughters is a common noun, in the feminine gender and plural 
number. 

F. Israel is a proper noun, in the masculine gender and singular 
number. 

Dr. S. In what person are these nouns ? 

K. Daughters is in the second person, because it 
denotes the persons spoken to. Israel and Saul are 
spoken of, and therefore both these nouns are in the 
third person. 

JEJ. I can't exactly understand this. 

J. Let me explain it to you, Edward. Now I speak 
to you ; and, of course, your name is in the second 
person. Edward, Edward ! Edward ! can't you under- 
stand ? Henry understands it. 

IT. Yes : you speak of me to Edward : so my name 
is in the third person, and his is in the second. 

J. Henry, you are right, exactly, sir, exactly. 

Dr. S. Pick out the nouns in what John has just said 
to Henry, and tell whether they are proper or common, 
and what gender, number, and person, they are in. 

A. Henry is a proper noun, in the masculine gender, singular number, 
and second person ; and sir is a common noun, in the masculine gender, 
singular number, and second person. 

Dr. S. Select the nouns in these sentences ; tell 
whether they are proper or common, and what gender, 
number, and person, they are in. 

Come, tell me, blue-eyed stranger, 

Say, whither dost thou roam, 
O'er this wide world a ranger ? 

Hast thou no friends nor home ? 

K. Stranger is a common noun, in the feminine gender, singular num- 
ber, and second person ; world is a common noun, in the neuter gender, 
singular number, and third person; ranger is a common noun, in the 
feminine gender, singular number, and third person ; friends is a com- 



104 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

mon noun, in the masculine or feminine gender, plural number, and 
third person ; and home is a common noun, in the neuter gtnder, singu- 
lar number, and third person. 

F. Why are stranger and ranger in the feminine gender ? 

K. Because they are here applied to a young lady, and they denote 
the female sex. 

Fathers, senators of Eome ! the arbiters of nations ! 
to you I fly for refuge against the murderous fury of 
Jugurtha. 

J. Fathers and senators are common nouns, in the masculine genden 
plural number, and second person ; arbiters is a common noun, in the 
masculine gender, plural number, and third person. 

P. P. Arbiters is in the second person, John, in ap- 
position with fathers. 

Dr. S. Mr. Puzzle, John is right ; for nouns or pro- 
nouns in apposition may be in different persons. 

E. Nations is a common noun, in the neuter gender, singular number, 
and third person. 

H. Plural number, Edward : nations denotes more than one. Refuge 
and fury are common nouns, in the neuter gender, singular number, and 
third person. 

D. Jugurtha is a common noun, in the neuter gender, singular num- 
ber, and third person. 

F. Why, David ! don't you know, Jugurtha is a man's name, and 
therefore a proper noun in the masculine gender ? 

H. John skipped one noun. Rome is a proper noun, in the neuter 
gender, singular number, and third person. 

Br. S. What are you thinking of, John, to pass right 
over Eome and never notice it? 

J. I am thinking of that dog. 

Dr. S. Well, what do you think of him ? 

J. I think the dog growls and barks. 

Dr. S. Then the dog himself is the subject of your 
thoughts, and his name is the subject of the verbs 
growls and barks, with which you express your thoughts, 
and therefore dog is in the nominative case. Does he 
growl and bark any thing ? 

J. No, sir ; but he scares the thieves away. 

Dr. S. Then the thoughts expressed by growls and 
barlcs have no objects, and are therefore confined to 
their subject, dog ; but scares expresses a thought that 
passes from its subject to its object, thieves. What case 
is thieves in ? 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 105 

J. In the objective case, because it denotes the ob- 
ject of the thought expressed by scares. 

A dog will bite 
A thief at night. 

F. Will bite is a verb, and at, a preposition. What will bite ? A dog. 
Then dog is the subject of will bite, and therefore in the nominative case. 
A dog will bite what ? A thief. Then thief is the object of mil bite, and 
therefore in the objective case. At what ? Night. Then night is in the 
objective case, the object of at. 

Dr. S. Whose dog is this ? and what is his name ? 

H. Ei chard Bloom field's, and his name is Rover. 

Dr. S. Observe the structure of this sentence, and 
tell the gender, number, person, and case of every 
noun : Rover watches Richard Bloomfield's orchard, 
house, and garden. 

K. Watches is the verb. Who watches ? Rover. Then Rover is the 
subject of watches. Rover watches what ? Orchard, house, and gar- 
den. Orchard, house, and garden, are the object of watches. 

A. Rover is a proper noun, in the masculine gender, singular number, 
third person, and nominative case. 

F. Richard Bloomfield's is a proper noun, in the masculine gender, 
singular number, third person, and possessive case. 

J. Orchard, house, and garden, are common nouns, in the neuter gen- 
der, singular number, third person, and objective case. 

(rod made the country, and man made the town. 

J. God is a proper noun, in the masculine gender, singular number, 
third person, and nominative case. 

A. Country is a common noun, in the neuter gender, singular number, 
third person, and objective case. 

K. Man is a common noun, in the masculine gender, singular number, 
third person, and nominative case. 

F. Town is a common noun, in the neuter gender, singular number, 
third person, and objective case. 

Dr. S. Select the nouns and pronouns in this sen- 
tence, and tell their gender, number, person, and case : 
"Simon, son of Jonas, lovest thou me ?" 

J. Simon is a proper noun, in the masculine gender, singular number, 
third person, and nominative case. 

H. In the second person, John ; for Simon is spoken to. Son is a 
common noun, in the masculine gender, singular number, second person, 
and nominative case. 

E Jonas is a proper noun, in the masculine gender, singular number, 
third person, and objective case. 



106 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

K. Who lovest ? Thou. Thou lovest whom ? Me. Thou is the sub- 
ject of lovest, and me the object. Thou is a pronoun, in the masculine 
gender, singular number, second person, and nominative case ; and me 
is a pronoun, in the masculine gender, singular number, first person, 
and objective case. 

F. Why are thou and me in the masculine gender 
and singular number? 

K. Because their antecedents, Simon and Jesus, are. 

P. P. You set our long established modes of teach- 
ing grammar at defiance, disregarding all of our author- 
ities. 

Br. S. The Book of Nature is my standard and au- 
thority. 

P. P. Do you find authority in that for teaching 
children grammar before they know their letters ? Oh ! 
it is preposterous ! O tempora ! mores ! Do you 
think such boys as these can comprehend the structure 
of our language ? 

Br. /S. Every boy begins to learn the structure of his 
mother-tongue when he begins to talk ; and, if his pa- 
rents are grammarians, they can make him speak cor- 
rectly every word and sentence that he uses, just as 
easily as they can teach him how to jabber silly baby- 
talk. Let all of us be careful how we mar the beauty 
of our language, when we talk with children. Proper 
words and sentences are precious jewels to the infant 
mind : our first impressions, and the words our parents 
tsach us, stick to us through life. Bad habits and ex- 
pressions, learned in childhood, are not easily corrected. 
What arc we but bundles of inveterate habits? deep- 
rooted habits of thought, of speech, of action ? Little 
children, guard ngainst bad habits. Cultivate good 
habits, steady habits, studious habits ; habits of atten- 
tion, undivided, fixed, unwavering, continuous atten- 
tion, and unbroken continuity of thought, the secret of 
Sir Isaac Newton's, Locke's and Milton's greatness, glory 
and renown. Bees gather honey, not by flitting care- 
lessly from flower to flower, but by abiding on each 
flower till the}' extract its sweetness : so attentive minds, 
by dwelling on each subject, treasure up rich stores of 
knowledge sweeter than the honey-comb. They pene- 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 107 

trate the outer crust of principles and theories, and sip 
their hidden sweets. To them each art and science is 
delightful, and the hours of study, radiant with the 
sun-beams of eternal truth, the happiest of their lives. 
As I repeat some poetry, select and parse the nouns 
and pronouns. 

F. Parse the nouns and pronouns ! What does that 
mean ? 

Dr. S. What you have just been doing. Tell whether 
the nouns are proper or common, and tell the gender, 
number, person, and case, of every noun and pronoun : 
thus presenting these two parts of speech in all their 
variations. This is etymological parsing. 

J. You led us on so gradually, that we learned to 
parse before we knew that we were parsing. 

The bird that soars on highest wing, 

Builds on the ground her lowly nest ; 
And she that doth most sweetly sing, 
Sings in the shade when all things rest : 
In lark and nightingale we see 
"What honor hath humility. 

When Mary chose "thebetter part," 

She meekly sat at Jesus' feet ; 
And Lydia's gently opened heart 

Was made for God's own temple mete : 
Fairest and best adorned is she 
Whose clothing is humility. 

The saint that wears heaven's brightest crown, 

In deepest adoration bends ; 
The weight of glory bows him down 
Then most when most his soul ascends : 
Nearest the throne itself must be 
The footstool of humility. 

Parse all these nouns and pronouns at your leisure. Look sharp, and 
search them out as hidden treasure; and may your hours of study be 
your hours of pleasure. 



108 . ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

CONVERSATION FOURTH. 



VARIATIONS OF PRONOUNS, ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS, 
AND EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

I. Good morning, Dr. Syntax. I have just received 
a grammar lecture at the post-office. It was as short 
as pie-crust, but not very sweet. As I was coming to 
school I stopped to get a letter, saying to the post-mas- 
ter, " Have you a letter here for me ?" "Who is me?" 
replied he, looking sourer than a vinegar barrel. " Why, 
Mr. Smith!" said I, "have you forgot your neighbors' 
children, who attended your school last winter? Don't 
you remember Ida?" "Ida! I-da who? I-da who?" 
reiterated Uncle Sam's official, with an air of great im- 
portance, till I told him both of my names. I then re- 
ceived my letter, and "left him alone with his glory." 

Dr. >S r . See that bee gathering honey from the thistle. 
Even so a gentle, docile mind draws sweet instruction 
from the rude asperities of life, and learns politeness 
from incivility, humility from insolence, and wisdom 
from folly. Pardon Mr. Smith's ill-humor, Ida. Per- 
haps he meant to teach you how to ask for letters ; or 
his thoughts were so absorbed in business that he did 
not recognize you, or his patience was exhausted by the 
constant repetition of that very question, so that he 
was tired of asking customers their names. To-day 
our lesson bristles with the harsh asperities of gram- 
mar : we shall have to handle the briers, and thorns, 
and thistles of language. Let us imitate the little bee, 
and gather all the honey they afford. Now we will see 
what we can gather from your interview with Mr. Smith. 
"Have you a letter here for me." Can any one define 
these little words, you and me ? What is their meaning? 

R. They have no meaning of their own : they borrow 
all their signification from their antecedents, and reflect 
the meaning of the nouns they represent. They may 
mean Queen Vietoria and Prince Albert, Romeo and 



PRONOUNS, ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS. 109 

Juliet, or Antony and Cleopatra. But 'they don't ; 
for these illustrious names are not their antecedents. 
Here they mean no more nor less than Mr. Smith and 
Ida ; for they simply represent their names. 

Dr. S. Is that all ? Do they perform no other office ? 
iiet us see. " Has Mr. Smith a letter here for Idaf 1 
Is that equivalent to " Have you a letter here for me?" 
Would a stranger know from this expression that Ida 
is the speaker, and Mr. Smith the person spoken to? 
What other words distinguish the speaker from the 
person spoken to or spoken of? To designate the three 
persons in grammar, is the grand prerogative of per- 
sonal pronouns. 

A personal pronoun is a pronoun whose form 
designates its person. 

/and ive always designate the first person ; thou, ye, 
and you, the second ; and he, she, it, and they, the third. 
These words are, therefore, called personal pronouns. 

The compound personal pronouns are, myself thyself 
himself herself itself ourselves, yourselves, and themselves. 

W. Do these words always represent persons? 

Dr. S. No : some of them represent brutes and inani- 
mate tilings. 

W. Then why are they called personal pronouns ? 

Dr. S. The very idea of personality implies thought. 
None but thinking beings are capable of speaking or 
of understanding what is said to them. Hence the use 
of this term in grammar to distinguish the speaker, and 
the person spoken to, and the person or thing spoken 
of. /and thou represent persons, or things personified ; 
he and she represent brutes and things personified, as 
well as persons; and it is generally applied to inani- 
mate things. So, you perceive, that this distinction of 
our nouns and pronouns, after all, is based on person- 
ality, notwithstanding the seeming solecism of applying 
person in a technical sense to things ; for without the 
first and the second person, (which imply thought, real 
or imaginary,) there could be no third, and, of course, 
no such variation of nouns and pronouns as person. 



110 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

P. What office does who perform in this sentence? 
" Have you forgot your neighbors' children, who attended 
your school last winter?" 

Dr. S. Who represents children, is the subject of 
attended, and connects the latter member of the sen- 
tence to " Have you forgot your neighbors' children?" '• 
We should therefore call it a connective pronoun. 

P. P. A connective pronoun ! Are you crazy? 
All grammarians call who a relative pronoun. 

Dr. S. Let vis appeal to all of the grammarians pres- 
ent. You that think who should be called a connective 
pronoun, raise your hands. Look, Mr. Puzzle : you are 
voted down unanimously by your own school. 

P. P. These little radicals are always ready to adopt 
new-fangled notions. 

Dr. S. " There was a man sent from God whose name 
was John," is equivalent to, ' ; There was a man sent 
from God, and Ms name was John." Does not whose 
perform the two-fold office of a pronoun and connective 
in this sentence ? 

A connective pronoun is a pronoun that con- 
nects different parts of a sentence. 

J. What is ivho in this sentence : Who comes there ? 

Dr. S. An interrogative pronoun, because it is used 
to ask a question ; and so is what in the preceding sen- 
tence. 

An interrogative pronoun is a pronoun that is 
used to ask a question. 

The noun that an interrogative pronoun represents, is 
generally unknown to the speaker ; but it is expected 
to be made known when the question is answered. 
There is a class of very common words used sometimes 
as adjectives, and sometimes as pronouns. They are 
therefore called pronominal adjectives by some gram- 
marians, and adjective pronouns by others. Which 
shall we call them ? 

R. Neither. Let us have no mongrels in our gram- 



PRONOUNS, ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS. Ill 

mar. When such words are used as pronouns, call 
them pronouns, and adjectives, when they are used as 
adjectives. 

Dr. S. You are exactly right. What shall we call 
such words as Murray and Bullions call distributive, 
demonstrative, and indefinite adjective pronouns? 

JR. Distributive, demonstrative, and indefinite pro- 
nouns, when they stand for nouns. 

A distributive pronoun is a pronoun that 
represents the persons or things that make up a 
number, as taken separately and singly. 

A demonstrative pronoun is a pronoun that 
precisely points out what it represents. 

An indefinite pronoun is a pronoun used in- 
definitely. 

The distributives are, each, either, and neither : as 
" He gave each of his sons a farm." "Was either of 
your parents present ? : ' " She received the attentions 
of each; but bestowed her endearments on neither.'' 1 

This, that, these, those, both, same, former, and latter, 
are often used as demonstrative pronouns : as, What is 
that? Whose books are these? This is mine, and 
those are yours. 

The words most commonly used as indefinite pro- 
nouns are, some, other, another, any, one, all, such, and 
none: as, " Some are happy while others are miserable." 
"Teach, me to feel another's woe." "Neither is there 
any that can deliver." " One ought to know one's own 
mind." "All have sinned." "There is none that 
doeth good." " Such as I have give I thee." 

"Art thou too fallen, Slaveownia? Do we see 
Thy mighty ones brought down as low as we ?" 

If. Are other pronouns ever used indefinitely ? 

Dr. S. Personal pronouns are occasionally used with- 
out definite antecedents, and connective pronouns very 
frequently ; so are distributive pronouns. But even 
then each of them retains its peculiar characteristic, and 



112 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

designates the person of the pronoun, connects, or dis- 
tributes : as, "Blessed are they that mourn." " Ye that 
listen with credulity to the whisperings of fancy." " I 
do not care who knows it." " How I wonder what you 
are." " Consider what is said rather than who says it." 
" Let each esteem others better than himself." 

" And there they say a wizzard's orgie crowds, 

When the moon lights her watch-tower in the clouds." 

An interrogative pronoun has no antecedent; it rep- 
resents a subsequent, which is so called, because it fol- 
lows the interrogative in the answer to the question. 
The subsequent is, of course, unknown to the speaker 
till the question is answered ; for how can he tell what 
answer will be given ? Interrogative, indefinite, and 
some connective pronouns, like algebraic letters, may be 
said to represent unknown quantities. Demonstrative 
pronouns point out what they represent so precisely, 
that they may be used either with or without ante- 
cedents, with equal perspicuity: as, Do you see that? 
Whose house is this? These are mine, and those are 
yours. //, this, and that, frequently stand for phrases, 
sentences, paragraphs, and sometimes whole discourses. 
It is said that a certain eminent divine who preached 
before one of the kings of England, as he closed what 
he regarded as an argument altogether incontrovertible, 
striking the pulpit violently with his fist, triumphantly 
exclaimed, "Who dare deny that?" "Nobody within 
the reach of your great fist," replied the king. What 
are the antecedents of it and that ? 

M. Let me see. "It is said." What is said? Why 
all that you have just related. So it stands for this 
whole anecdote. " Who dare deny that ?" Deny 
what? The whole sermon, I suppose, or, at least, the 
argumentative part of it. 

Dr. S. Pronouns, like nouns, have four kinds of va- 
riations ; gender, number, person, and case. 

The declension of a noun or pronoun is a regular 
presentation of all its variations in number and case. 

Decline man, woman, child, hoy, wife, and lady. 





PRONOUNS, ADJECTIVES A* 


W ADVERBS. lie 


R. I have written them 


on the black-board. See i 


ley are right. 












Singular. 


Plural. 




Singular. 


Plural. 


Nom. 


Man, 


Men. 


Nom. 


Woman, 


Women. 


Poss. 


Man's, 


Men's. 


P08S. 


Woman's, 


Women's. 


Obj. 


Man, 


Men. 


Obj. 


Woman, 


Women. 


Nom. 


Child, 


Children. 


Nom. 


Boy, 


Boys. 


Poss. 


Child's. 


Children's. 


Poss. 


Bov's, 


Boys'. 


Obj. 


Child, 


Children. 


Obj. 


. B oy, 


Boys. 


Nom. 


Wife, 


Wives. 


Nom. 


"Lady, 


Ladies. 


Poss. 


Wife's, • 


Wives'. 


Poss. 


Ladys, 


Ladies'. 


Obj. 


Wife, 


Wives. 


Obj. 


Lady, 


Ladies. 



Dr. S. They are all right but ladys ; it should be 
written with an apostrophe between the y and s, as the 
sign of the possessive case ; thus, lady's. 

B. O ! that is one of my careless blunders. 

Dr. jS. Can any of you write the declension of the 
personal pronouns ? 

P. I can try, sir ; but, perhaps, I'll blunder more 
than Eobert did. 



Singular. 



First person any gender. 



Second person any gender. 



Third 



person masculine 
gender. 



Third person feminine. 



Third person neuter. 



{Nom. 
Poss. 
Obj. 

{Nom. 
Poss. 
Obj. 

!Nom. 
Poss. 
Obj. 

Nom. 
Poss. 
Obj. 

!Nom. 
Poss. 
Obj. 



I, 

My, 
Me. . 

Thou, 

Thy, 

Thee. 

He, 
His, 
Him. 

She, 
Her, 
Her. 

It, 
Its, 
It. 



Nom. 
Poss. 
Obj. 

Nom. 
Poss. 
Obj. 

Nom. 
Poss. 
Obj. 

Nom. 
Poss. 
Obj. 

Nom. 
Poss. 
Obj. 



We, 
Our, 

Us. 

Ye or You, 

Your, 

You. 

They, 
Their, 
Them. 

They, 
Their, 
Them. 

They, 
Their, 
Them. 



Dr. S. That's exactly right. Can you decline the 
compound personal pronouns ? 

P. They are indeclinable : they have no possessive 
case, and are not varied in form in either of the other 
cases. 

Dr. S. Oliver, decline who and which. 
8 



114 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

0. They have the same form in both numbers. 

Nom. Who, Nom. Which. 

Poss. Whose, Poss. Whose, 

Obj. Whom. Obj. W T hich. 

Dr. S. Whoever and whosoever are declined like who. 
Can any of yon decline one and other ? 
L. They are declined like nouns. 





Singular. 


Plural. 




Singular. 


Plural. 


Nom. 


One, 


Ones. 


Nom. 


Other. 


Others. 


Poss. 


One's, 


Ones'. 


Poss. 


Other's, 


Others'. 


Obj. 


One, 


Ones. 


Obj. 


Other, 


Others. 



Dr. S. This and that are varied in number, but not 
in case ; these is the plural of this, and those the plural 
of that. Former and latter have the same form in both 
numbers, but are varied in case like singular nouns. 
All the other pronouns are indeclinable. Now get 
your books, and we will have an exercise in parsing 
pronouns. 

JS. What books shall we use ? 

Dr. S. The Bible is the best standard of grammatical 
accuracy in the use of pronouns. It abounds in every 
kind of pronouns used with strict philosophical cor- 
rectness, with but few exceptions. It contains some of 
the most beautiful specimens of graceful, animated 
conversation in our language; simple, pure, and nat- 
ural ; never equaled by our greatest poets. Now parse 
the pronouns in the passages that I select. 

JR. Let us select them, and you parse the pronouns. 

Dr. S. Very well. Take notice how I parse each 
word, and all of you can learn as fast as if you parsed 
yourselves, perhaps, a little faster ; for the listener is 
free from all embarrassment. Now watch me closely, 
and correct my errors. I am very apt to make mis- 
takes in parsing. With so many bright eyes fixed on 
me, and seeing all my faults, how can I help being a 
little embarrassed ? 

I. And Ruth said, Entreat ine not to leave thee, or to re- 
turn from following after thee : for whither thou goest, I will 
go ; and where thou lodgest, I will lodge : thy people shall 



EXERCISES IN PARSING. 115 

be my people, and thy God my God : where thou diest, 
I will die ; and there will I be buried : the Lord do so to 
me, and more also, if aught but death part thee and me. 

Br. S. Me is a personal pronoun standing for Bulk, in the feminine 
gender, singular number, first person,- and objective case. 

Thee is a personal pronoun standing for Naomi, in the feminine gen- 
der, singular number, second person, and objective case. 

Thou is a personal pronoun representing Naomi, in the feminine 
gender, singular number, second person, and nominative case. 

7 is a personal pronoun representing Ruth, in the feminine gender, 
Bingular number, first person, and nominative case. 

Thy is a personal pronoun representing Naomi, in the feminine gen- 
der, singular number, second person, and possessive case. 

My is a personal pronoun representing Ruth, in the feminine gen- 
der, Bingular number, first person, and possessive case. 

Decline these pronouns. 

J. Nom. I, Poss. my, Obj. me. Nom. thou, Poss. thy, Obj. thee. 

K. Why are these pronouns in the feminine gender ? 

M. Because they represent the names of females. 

F. Why are they in the singular number ? 

P. Because the nouns they represent are singular.. 

A. Why is / in the first person, and thou in the 
second ? 

S. Because / denotes the speaker ; and thou, the per- 
son spoken to ; Euth is here the speaker ; and Naomi, 
the person spoken to. 

W. And, behold, Boaz came from Bethlehem, and said 
unto the reapers, The Lord be with you. And they answered 
him, The Lord bless thee. 

Br. 8. You is a personal pronoun representing reapers, in the mas- 
culine gender, plural number, second person, and objective case. 

They is a personal pronoun representing reapers, in the masculine 
gender, plural number, third person, and nominative case. 

Thee is a personal pronoun representing Boaz, in the masculine gen- 
der, singular number, second person, and objective case. 

J. You skipped one pronoun. Him is a personal pronoun standing 
for Boaz, in the masculine gender, singular number, third person, and 
objective case. Nom. he, Poss his, Obj. him. 

F. Why are these pronouns in the masculine gen- 
der? 

Dr. S. Because their antecedents are : you and they 
stand for reapers ; and him and thee, for Boaz. 

A. Why are you and they in the plural number? 



116 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

W. Because their antecedent reapers, is. 

R. Why is him in the third person, and thee in the 
second, when they both represent Boaz? 

M. Because Boaz is spoken of in one sentence, and 
spoken to in the other. The same may be said of reap- 
ers, the antecedent of you and they. 

Then said Boaz unto his servant that was set over the reap- 
ers, Whose damsel is this ? 

Dr. S. His is a personal pronoun representing Boaz, in the mascu- 
line gender, singular number, third person, and possessive case. 

That is a connective pronoun standing for servant, in the masculine 
gender, singular number, third person, and nominative case. 

Whose is an interrogative pronoun, in the masculine gender, singu- 
lar number, third person, and possessive case. 

This is a demonstrative pronoun, in the feminine gender, singular 
number, third person, and nominative case. 

I. Why is this in the feminine gender ? 
J. Because its antecedent damsel, is. 

What if the little rain should say, 

So small a drop as I 
Can never wet the thirsty earth : 

I'll tarry in the sky. 

Dr. S. What is an interrogative pronoun, in the neuter gender, sin- 
gular number, third person, and nominative case. 

1 is a personal pronoun standing for rain, in the neuter gender, 
singular number, first person, and nominative case. 

K. Why is / in the neuter gender ? 
M. Because its antecedent rain is. 
P. Is not rain personified, and figuratively femine. 
M. Personification does not always change the gen- 
der of a noun or pronoun. 

We cannot tell who put our money in our sacks. 

Dr. S. We i3 a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender, plural 
number, first person, and nominative case 

Who is a connective pronoun, in the masculine gender, singular 
number, third person, and nominative case. 

Oar is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender, plural number, 
first person, and possessive case. 

W. Why is we in the masculine gender and plural 
number. 

Dr. S. Because it represents Joseph's brethren. 
L. What is the antecedent of ivho ? 



EXERCISES IN PARSING. 11T 

Dr. & It has no antecedent. So its gender and num- 
ber are assumed. When a pronoun has no antecedent, 
its gender and number must be either undetermined or 
assumed. 

M. Pharaoh said unto Joseph, Forasmuch as God hath 
shewed thee all this, there is none so discreet or wise as thou 
art. 

Br. S. Thee is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender, singular 
number, second person, and objective case. 

1 his is a demonstrative pronoun, in the neuter gender, singular num- 
ber, third person, and objective case. 

None is an indefinite /pronoun, in the masculine gender, singular 
number, third person, and nominative case. 

Thou is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender, singular num- 
ber, third person, and nominative case. 

A. Why are- thee and thou in the masculine gender 
and singular number ? 

0. Because their antecedent, Joseph, is. 

J. What is the antecedent of this ? 

M. All that Joseph had just said to Pharaoh. 

K. What is the antecedent of none ? 

B. It has no antecedent. So its gender and number 
are assumed. 

It is always expedient to do right. 

Dr. 8. It is a personal pronoun, in the neuter gender, singular num- 
ber, third person, and nominative case. 

P. What is the antecedent of it? 

M. To do right : to do right is always expedient. 

0. What kind of parsing do you call this ? 

Dr. S. Etymological parsing. 

0. How does this differ from syntactical parsing ? 

Dr. S. Etymological parsing consists in distinguish- 
ing the parts of speech, and mentioning the variations 
of declinable words, and the derivation of derivatives ; 
syntactical parsing, in observing the construction of all 
the words that form a sentence, and applying the rules 
of syntax after mentioning their variations. 

W. Let us have some exercises in syntactical parsing. 
Parse the pronouns in these sentences : 



118 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Joseph said unto his brethren, I am Joseph ; doth my 
father yet live ? And his brethren could not answer him ; 
for they were troubled at his presence. 

Dr. S. His is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender, and sin- 
gular number ; agreeing with its antecedent Joseph, according to Rule 
7 : " A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in gender and num- 
ber :" in the third person and possessive case ; denoting possession or 
ownership, according to Rule 3 : " A noun or pronoun that denotes 
possession or ownership must be in the possessive case." 

J is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender, and singular num- 
ber, agreeing with Joseph, according to Rule 7 : [Repeat the rule.*] 
in the first person, and nominative case ; the subject of am, according 
to Rule 1 : '' The subject of a finite verb must be in the nominative 
case." 

My is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender, and singular 
number ; agreeing with Joseph, according to Rule 7 : in the third per- 
son, and possessive case ; denoting possession or ownership, accord- 
ing to Rule 3. 

Him is a personal pronoun, in the musculine gender, and singular 
number ; agreeing with Joseph, according to Rule 7 : in the third per- 
son and objective case ; the object of could answer, according to Rule 
2 : " The object of a verb or preposition must be in the objective 
ease." 

They is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender, and plural 
number ; agreeing with its antecedent brethren, according to Rule 7 : 
in the third person, and nominative case ; the subject of were troubled, 
according to Rule 1. 

I have finished the work which thou gavest me to do. 

J is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender, and singular num- 
ber ; agreeing with Jesus— Rule 7 : in the first person, and nomina- 
tive case ; the subject of have finished— Rule 1. 

Which is a connective pronoun, connecting thou gavest me to do, to 
I have finished the work, in the neuter gender, singular number, and 
third person, agreeing with its antecedent, work— Note 8 to Rule 7 : 
and in the objective case, the object of gavest— Rule 2. 

Thou is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender, and singular 
number ; agreeing with its antecedent Father— Rule 7 : in the second 
person, and nominative case ; the subject of gavest — Rule 1. 

Me is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender, and singular 
number : agreeing with Jesus— Rule 7 : in the first person, and object- 
ive case ; the object of to, understood— Rule 2. 

S. This is my commandment, That ye love one another as 
I have loved you. 

Br. S. This is a demonstrative pronoun, in the neuter gender, singu- 
lar number, third person, and nominative case : the subject of is — 
Rule 1. 



•The learner should repeat every rule In parsing syntactically, 1U1 he learns the 
application of all the rules of syntax. 



EXERCISES IN PARSING. 119 

R. What is the antecedent of this ? 
Dr. S. That ye love one another as I have loved you is 
my commandment. 

Te is a personal pronoun, in the plural number, second person, and 
nominative case ; the subject of love — Rule 1. 

One is an indefinite pronoun, in the singular number, third person, 
and nominative case ; in apposition with ye — Rule 4 : " A word in ap- 
position with another must agree with it in case." 

Another is an indefinite pronoun, in the singular number, third per- 
son, and objective case ; the object of love— Rule 2. 

J is a personal pronoun in the masculine gender, singular number, 
first person and nominative case ; the subject of have loved— Rule 1. 

You is a personal pronoun, in the plural number, second person, 
and objective case ; the object of have loved— Rule 2. 

R. Why do you omit the gender of these pronouns, 
and their agreement with their antecedents ? 

Dr. S. One and another have no definite antecedents. 

0. Is not Jesus the antecedent of I, and disciples, the 
antecedent of ye and youl 

Dr. S. Eead your Bible, Oliver ; and you will know. 

M. Whosoever killeth you will think he doeth God service. 

Dr. S. Whosoever is a connective pronoun, in the masculine gender, 
singular number, third person and nominative case two-fold, equiva- 
lent in sense to he who ; being the subject of killeth, and also the sub- 
ject of will think, (he who killeth you will think that he doeth God 
service,) according to Rule 1. 

You is a personal pronoun in the masculine gender, and plural num- 
ber ; agreeing with, disciples— Rule 7 : in the second person and objec- 
tive case ; the object of killeth — Rule 1. 

He is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender, and singular 
number ; agreeing with its antecedent whosoever — Rule 7 : in the third 
person, and nominative case ; the subject of will think — Rule 1. 

W. Can one pronoun be the antecedent of another ? 

Dr. S. Yes : a sort of secondary antecedent. 

P. P. Secondary antecedent ! What authority have 
you for that ? I have never seen or heard of such a 
thing. 

Dr. S. Parse the pronouns in this sentence, Mr. Puz- 
zle, and you'll see : " Jesus saith unto her, I that speak 
unto thee, am he." 

P. P. Rer is a personal pronoun, in the feminine gender, and sin- 
gular number ; agreeing with woman — Rule 7 : in the third person, 
and objective case ; the object of unto — Rule 2. 



120 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

J is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender, and singular num- 
ber ; agreeing with Jesus— Rule 7 : in the first person, and nominative 
case ; the subject of am,— Rule 1. 

That is a connective pronoun, in the masculine gender, singular 
number, and first person, agreeing with its antecedent I— Note 8 to 
Rule 7 : and iD the nominative case ; the subject of speak — Rule 1. 

Thee is a personal pronoun, in the feminine gender, and singular 
number ; agreeing with icoman — Rule 7 : in the second person, and 
objective case ; the object of unto — Rule 2. 

He is a personal pronoun in the masculine gender, and singular 
number ; agreeing with Messlas— Rule 7 : in the third person, and 
nominative case ; agreeing in case with thou, the subject of am, as the 
predicate — Rule 5 : " The case of the predicate must be the same as 
that of the subject." 

Dr. & As Jesus is the antecedent of I, and / the an- 
tecedent of that, why is not 1" a secondary antecedent ? 

P. P. Because we have no authority for calling it 
so. Will you parse the pronouns in the sentences that 
I select ? 

Dr. S. I'll do the best I can. If I get puzzled will 
you help me ? 

P. P. Certainly. "Who can tell us who they are?" 

Dr. S. WIio is an interrogative pronoun, in the singular number, 
third person, and nominative case ; the subject of can tell — Rule 1. 

Us is a personal pronoun, in the plural number, first person, and 
objective case ; the object of can tell— Rule 2. 

Who is a connective pronoun, connecting they are to who can tell vs, 
in the plural number, third person, and nominative case ; agreeing in 
case with they, the subject o"f are, as the predicate — Rule 5. 

They is a personal pronoun, in the plural number, third person and 
nominative case ; the subject of are— Rule 1. 

M. Why do you omit the gender of these pronouns 
and their agreement with their antecedents ? 

Dr. S. They have no definite antecedent, and of 
course, their gender is undetermined. 

P. P. Let such as advise others be careful what they do 
themselves. 

Br. S. Such is an indefinite pronoun, in the plural number, third 
person, and objective case ; the object of let— Rule 2. 

As is a connective pronoun, connecting advise others, to let such be 
careful what they do themselves, in the plural number, and third person ; 
agreeing with such— Note 8 to Rule 7 ; and in the nominative case ; 
the subject of advise — Rule 1. 

Others is an indefinite pronoun in the plural number, third person 
and objective case ; the object of advise— Rule 2. 



EXERCISES IN PARSING. 121 

What is a connective pronoun, connecting they do themselves to let 
such as advise others be careful, in the neuter gender, singular number, 
third person, and objective case ; the object of do — Rule 2. 

Ihey is a personal pronoun, in the plural number, third person, and 
nominative case ; the subject of do — Rule 1. 

Themselves is a compound personal pronoun, in the plural number, 
third person, and nominative case ; in apposition with they — Rule 4. 

W. Do none of these pronouns have any antecedents ? 

Dr. jS. Such is the antecedent of as, ihey, and them- 
selves. But such, others, and what, have no definite an- 
tecedent. 

I tell you that which you yourselves do know. 

Dr. S. I is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender, and singu- 
lar number ; agreeing with Mark Antony — Rule 7 : in the first per- 
son, and nominative case ; the subject of tell — Rule 1. 

You is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender, and plural num- 
ber ; agreeing with Romans — Rule 7 : in the second person, and ob- 
jective case ; the object of tell — Rule 2. 

That is a demonstrative pronoun, in the neuter gender, singular 
number, third person, and objective case ; the object of tell — Rule 2. 

Which is a connective pronoun, connecting you yourselves do know 
to 1 tell you that, in the neuter gender, singular number, and third per- 
son ; agreeing with that— Note 8 to Rule 7 : and in the objective case ; 
the object of do know — Rule 2. 

You is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender, and plural 
number ; agreeing with Romans — Rule 7 : in the second person and 
nominative case ; the subject of do knoio — Rule 1. 

Yourselves is a compound personal pronoun, in the masculine gen- 
der, and plural number ; agreeing with Romans — Rule 7 : in the second 
person, and nominative case ; in apposition with you — Rule 4. 

M. Can one verb have two objects ? Are both you 
and that the objects of tell? 

Dr. S. Yes : verbs of asking, and teaching. That is 
the direct, and you, the indirect object of tell. 

P. P. You is the object of to, understood, in my 
opinion. 

Dr. S. Who shall decide when doctors disagree, 

And soundest casuists doubt, like you and me ? 

If. Parse these pronouns: "It is I myself: handle 
me, and see.". 

Dr. S. It is a personal pronoun, in the neuter gender, singular num- 
ber, third person, and nominative case ; the subject of is— Rule 1. 

J" is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender, and singular num- 
ber ; agreeing with Jesus — Rule 7 : in the first person, and nominative 



122 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

case ; agreeing in case with it, the subject of is, as the predicate — 
Rule 5. 

Myself is a compound personal pronoun, in the masculine gender, 
and singular number ; agreeing with Jesus — Rule 7 : in the first per- 
son and nominative case ; in apposition with I— Rule 4. 

Me is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender, and singular 
number ; agreeing with Jesus — Rule 7 : in the first person and object- 
ive case ; the object of handle — Rule 2. 

J. What do you mean by apposition and predicate ? 

Dr. S. Apposition is the adding of one noun or pro- 
noun to another signifying the same person or thing, 
by way of explanation, or for the sake of emphasis. 
When the addition term is used to characterize the sub- 
ject of an intervening verb, it is called the predicate, as, 
" Alexander the conqueror died a drunkard." " I, the 
Lord, am thy Saviour and thy Redeemer, the mighty One 
of Jacob." Here conqueror is in apposition with Alex- 
ander, and drunkard is the predicate : Lord is in appo- 
sition with I, and Saviour and Redeemer are predicates. 
The predicate generally comes after the verb, except in 
questions asked with interrogative pronouns : as, What 
ami? Who art thou ? TTAaHsthat? Whose fellows 
are these ? Here I, thou, that, and these, are the subjects ; 
and what, who, and fellows, are the predicates. 

thou in whose presence my soul takes delight. 

Dr. S. Thou is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender, and 
singular number ; agreeing with G.kI — Rule 7 : in the second person 
and nominative case independent — Rule (i. 

Whose is a connective pronoun, in the masculine gender, singular 
number, and second person ; agreeing with thou — Note 8 to Rule 7 : 
and in the possessive case ; denoting possession or ownership — Rule 3. 

My is a personal pronoun, in the singular number, first person, and 
possessive case; denoting possession or o«vnersh : p — Rule 3. 

P. Why do you omit the gender of my, and its agree- 
ment with its antecedent? 

Dr. S. Because its gender and its antecedent are un- 
determined. 

P. P. My represents the name of the poet who com- 
posed this hymn. 

Dr. S. Yes : and it was meant to represent every 
good devout Christian who adopts the poet's language. 

S. Why is whose in the second person ? 



EXERCISES m PARSING. 123 

Dr. S. Because its antecedent thou, is. Who, which, 
that, and as, must always be in the same person as their 
antecedents. These are the only pronouns that must 
always agree in person with their antecedents. 

P. P. There is no conflict between the interests and duties 
of the North on one side, and the South on the other : what 
is best for each, or either, is best for both. 

Dr. S. What is a connective pronoun, connecting is best for both^ to 
is best for each, or either, in the neuter gender, singular number, third 
person, and nominative case two-fold ; being the subject of is in each 
of the sentences that it connects — Rule 1. 

Each and either are distributive pronouns, representing the North 
and South separately, in the neuter gender, singular number, third 
person, and objective case ; the object of for — Rule 2. 

Both is a demonstrative pronoun, representing the North and South 
jointly, in the neuter gender, plural number, third person, and ob- 
jective case ; the object of for — Rule 2. 

By the grace of God I am what I am. 

Dr. S. J is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender, and singu- 
lar number ; agreeing with Paul— Rule 7 : in the first person, and 
nominative case ; the subject of am — Rule 1. 

What ia a connective pronoun, connecting lam to by the grace of 
God I am. in the neuter gender, singular number, third person, and 
nominative case two-fold ; agreeing in case with I, the subject of am, 
in each sentence as a double predicate — Rule 5. 

The jury believed what the witness said. 

What is a connective pronoun, connecting the witness said to the 
jury believed, in the neuter gender, singular number, third person, and 
objective case two-fold ; the object of believed and also of said — 
Rule 2. 

"Whatever purifies, fortifies, also, the heart. 

Whatever is a connective pronoun, connecting purifies to fortifies, 
also, the heart, in the neuter gender, singular number, third person, 
and nominative case two-fold; the subject of fortifies, and also of 
purifies — Rule 1. 

Whoever commits a crime, strengthens the enemy. 

Whoever is a connective pronoun, connecting commits a crime to 
strengthens the enemy, in the singular number, third person, and nomina- 
tive case two-fold : the subject, of strengthens, and also of commits — 
Rule 1. 

The upright man adheres to what is right, whoever smiles 
or frowns. 

What is a connective pronoun, connecting is riglii to the upright man 
adheres to, in the neuter gender, singular number, third person, and in 



124: ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

the objective case, and also in the nominative ; the object of to, and the 
subject of is — Rules 1 and 2. 

Wlwever is a connective pronoun, connecting smiles or frowns to the 
upright man adheres to what is right, in the singular number, third 
person, and nominative case; the subject of smiles and frowns — Rule 1. 

Whatever snarling critics say, 

He makes December sweet as May. 

Whatever is a connective pronoun, connecting He makes December 
sweet as May to snarling critics say, iu the neuter gender, singular num- 
ber, third person, and objective case ; the object of say — Rule 2. 

He is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender, and singular num- 
ber ; agreeing with poet — Rule V : in the third person, and nominative 
case; the subject of makes — Rule 1. 

P. P. Where are John's and Ida's books ? 
S. Hers lie on the desk ; and his are at home. 

Dr. S. Hers is a personal pronoun, equivalent in sense to her books, 
in the feminine gender, singular number, tbird person, and possessive 
case, in form ; (representing Ida, the name of the possessor ;) but in the 
neuter gender, plural number, third person, and nominative case, in con- 
struction ; (representing books, the name of the things possessed ;) the 
subject of He — Rule 1. 

His is a personal pronoun, equivalent in sense to his books, in the mas- 
culine gender, singular number, third person, aDd possessive case, in 
form ; (representing John, the name of the possessor;) but in the neuter 
gender, plural number, third person, and nominative case, in construc- 
tion; (representing books, the name of the things possessed;) the sub- 
ject of are — Rule 1. 

While man exclaims, " see all things for my use ;" 
"See man for mine," replies a pampered goose. 

My is a personal pronoun, iu the masculine gender, and singular num- 
ber ; agreeing with man — Rule *l : in the first person, and possessive 
case ; denoting possession or ownership — Rule 3. 

Mine is a personal pronoun, equivalent in sense to my use, in the 
feminine gender, singular number, first person, and possessive case, in 
form ; (representing goose, the name of the possessor ;) but in the neuter 
gender, singular number, tbird person, and objective case, in construc- 
tion ; (representing use, the name of the thing possessed ;) the object of 
for— Rule 2. 

Thinking makes what we read ours. 

What is a connective pronoun, in the neuter gender, singular number, 
third person, and objective case two-fold ; the object of makes and also 
of read— Rule 2. 

We is a personal pronoun, in the plural number, first person, and 
nominative case ; the subject of read— Rule 1. 

Ours is a personal pronoun, in the plural number, first person, and 
possessive case, in form ; but in the neuter gender, singular number, 



EXERCISES IN PARSING. 125 

third person, and objective case, in construction ; being in apposition 
with what — Rule 4. 

What is mine is thine. 

What is a connective pronoun, in the neuter gender, singular number, 
third person, and nominative case twofold ; the subject of is in each 
sentence — Rule 1. 

Mine is a personal pronoun, in the singular number, first person, and 
possessive case, in form ; but in the neuter gender, singular number, 
third person, and nominative case, in construction; agreeing iu case 
with what, the subject of is, as the predicate — Rule 5. 

Thine is a personal pronoun, in the singular number, second person, 
and possessive case, in form ; but in the neuter gender, singular number, 
third person, and nominative case, in construction ; agreeing In case with 
what, as the predicate — Rule 5. 

If they have kept my saying, they will keep yours also. 

They is a personal pronoun, in the plural number, third person, and 
nominative case; the suliject of have kept — Rule 1. 

My is a personal pronoun, in tbe masculine gender, and singular num- 
ber, agreeing with Jesus — Rule 7 : in the first person, and possessive 
case; denoting-possession or ownership— Rule 3. 

Yours is a personal pronoun, equivalent in sense to your saying, in 
the masculine gender, plural number, second person, and possessive case, 
inform; (representing disciples;) but in the neuter gender, singular 
number, third person, and objective case, in construction ; (representing 
saying ;) the object of will keep — Rule 2. 

Blessed are the poor in spirit ; for theirs is the kingdom of 
heaven. 

Theirs is a personal pronoun, in the plural number, third person, and 
possessive case, in form ; but in the neuter gender, singular number, 
third person, and nominative case, in construction; as the predicate 
agreeing in case with kingdom, the subject of is — Rule 5. 

P. P. Is not theirs the subject of is, and kingdom the 
predicate ? 

Dr. S. I think not ; for the meaning is, The kingdom 
of heaven is theirs. 

Many free countries have lost their liberty ; and ours may 
lose hers. 

Tlieir is a personal pronoun, in the neuter gender, and plural number; 
agreeing with countries — Rule 7: in the third person, and possessive 
case ; denoting possession or ownership — Rule 3. 

Ours is a personal pronoun, equivalent in sense to our country, in the 
plural number, first person, and possessive case, in form; but in the 
feminine gender, (by personification,) singular number, third person, and 
nominative case, in construction ; the subject of may lose — Rule 1. 



126 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Hers is a personal pronoun, equivalent in sense to her liberty, in the 
feminine gender, singular number, third person, and possessive case, in 
form; but in the neuter gender, singular number, third person, and 
objective case, in construction ; the object of may lose — Rule 2. 

P. P. I have given you all the hard cases I can 
think of. I have puzzled hundreds of our best gram- 
marians with them. I have never met with one before 
that I could not puzzle. 

Dr. S. I am glad that you can't think of any more ; 
for I am tired of parsing. I have tried to make hard 
cases easy ; and I hope you will not blame me, if you 
can't understand them. 

M. You have explained them so well, that I believe 
I can parse the double-cased pronouns that you gave us 
last week: "Your friends are mine and mine are 
yours." 

Your is a personal pronoun, in the plural number, second persoD, and 
possessive case ; denoting possession or ownership — Rule 3. 

Mine is a personal pronoun, equivalent in sense to my friends, in the 
singular number, first person and possessive case, in form ; but in the 
plural number, third person, and nominative case, in construction ; agree- 
ing in case with friends the subject of are, as the predicate — Rule 6. 

Mine is a personal pronoun, in the singular number, first person, and 
possessive case, in form ; but in the plural number, third person, and 
nominative case, in construction ; the subject of are — Rule 1. 

Yours is a personal pronoun equivalent in sense to your friends, in the 
plural number, second person, and possessive case, in form ; but in the 
plural number, third person, and nominative case, in construction ; agree- 
ing in case with mine, the subject of are, as the predicate — Rule 5. 

P. P. Why don't you mention the gender of these 
pronouns, Mary, and their antecedents ? 

M. Because this is a general maxim, applicable to 
any person, either male or female ; and, of course, the 
gender is undetermined. 

P. P. Then why not say masculine or feminine? 

Dr. S. For the sake of brevity in parsing, when the 
gender is undetermined, it is better to omit it than to 
say masculine or feminine: then the omission of it 
will be significant. Now, Mr. Puzzle, parse the pro- 
nouns in this sentence, taken from a letter written by a 
father to his son : "Whatever the ancients have left us, 
or the moderns have amassed, is spread before you." 



EXERCISES IN PARSING-. 127 

P. P. Whatever is a connective pronoun, connecting is spread before 
you to (he ancients have left us, or the moderns have amassed, in the neuter 
gender, singular number, third person, and two-fold case ; being in the 
objective case as the object of have left and have amassed, and also in the 
nominative case as the subject of is spread — Rules 1 and 2. 

Us is a personal pronoun, in the plural number, first person, and ob- 
jective case ; the object of to understood — Rule 2. 

You is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender, and singular num- 
ber ; agreeing with its antecedent son — Rule 7 : in the second person, 
and objective case ; the object of before— Rule 2. 

Dr. S. The plural pronoun you is here used for the 
singular by enallage. 

B. What is enallage ? 

Dr. S. A customary deviation from strict propriety, 
in which one part of speech or variation is used for 
another. Enallage is very near allied to solecism ; and 
should never be employed, unless it is sanctioned by es- 
tablished usage which grammarians cannot overcome. 
The Bible is the best standard of strict philosophical 
accuracy in the use of pronouns. There, the singular 
and plural are never confounded : you is never used for 
thou, nor me for I. In other works capricious custom 
very often gets the better of analogy, and sanctions 
forms of speech which neither strict propriety nor sound 
philosophy can justify ; and yet it is in vain for us gram- 
marians to remonstrate : what is customary will prevail 
in spite of all that we can do, till it is changed by some 
new freak of custom. This confounding of the singu- 
lar and plural is a striking instance of the power of cus- 
tom in perverting language. 

M. In ancient times, did everybody talk in Scripture 
style ? 

Dr. S. The Bible is undoubtedly a faithful record of 
the ancient customary form of common conversation. 

M. Then why do all of us now use you instead of 
thee and thou in the singular number ? 

Dr. S. You instead of thou is said to have been first 
employed by courtiers in addressing kings and nobles ; 
representing them with all of their attendants. This 
complimentary form of address was soon extended to 
the common people, and applied to individuals of every 



128 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

rank. So you is now upon a level with thou in point of 
respect : its complimentary significance being lost. 

P. P. In common conversation everybody, but the 
Quakers, now use you instead of thee and thou. This 
complimentary form of address is, therefore, sanctioned 
by general usage. So you must abandon your position 
and submit to custom. 

Dr. S. My position is supported by the Bible, com- 
mon sense, analogy, and reason: yours, by freakish' 
custom only. 

P. Must you be parsed as singular when it represents 
a singular noun ? 

Dr. S. You is plural in form as much as we or they ; 
and verbs agree with it accordingly, no matter what it 
represents : as, " you know that you are Brutus that say 
this," — not, u you knowest that you art Brutus that sayest 
this." Like Mr. Brown, I think it is better to say the 
plural is used for the singular by enallage, than to parse 
you as singular. The same may be said of we when it 
is used for I, to represent a singular noun, as is some- 
times done by monarchs, authors, editors, and public 
speakers. But I hope this practice will not be extended 
to all classes in society, and confound the singular and 
plural of our pronouns, in the first person, as well as 
in the second. All such deviations from propriety of 
speech, should be condemned as solecisms, by every 
philosophical grammarian. If it should become as cus- 
tomary to use we for / as it now is to use you for thou, 
would it not be just as proper? 

P. P. Certainly ; for general usage is the standard of 
propriety in language : what is customary is correct, if 
sanctioned by the learned and polite. Prevailing cus- 
tom is the universal law of literature, as well as eti- 
quette. 

Dr. S. I can't agree with you exactly, Mr. Puzzle. 
Some absurd and most ridiculous customs have pre- 
vailed for many ages, at different times and places, and 
have finally been overcome, and better ones established 
in which reason, truth, analogy, philosophy, and com- 
mon sense, prevail. 



EXERCISES IN PARSING. 129 

P. P. Pardon me for troubling you with one more 
hard case. I would like to hear you parse what in this 
sentence. 

But my veracity impeach, 

If she can tell what part of speech 

Gentility belongs to. 

Br. S. What is a connective pronoun, in the neuter gender, singular 
number, third person, and objective case ; the object of to — Rule 2. 

W. Is not what an adjective belonging to part?\ ;;i| 

Dr. /S. It has the position of an adjective, but it per- 
forms the office of a pronoun; for it stands for party 
and is the object of to. 

P. P. It performs the offices of both ; relating to 
part as an adjective, and representing it as a pronoun. 
It is, therefore, properly called a pronominal adjective : 
so are each, either, and neither, this, that, these, and those, 
some, other, all, and such ; because they are oftener used 
as adjectives than as pronouns. 

Br. S. When such words are used as adjectives I 
call them adjectives, and pronouns when they are used 
as pronouns ; not pronominal adjectives, nor adjective 
pronouns. I parse every word according to the office it 
performs in the sentence I am parsing. 

B. Let us parse some adjectives etymologically. 

Dr. S. Yery well. Parse the adjectives in the sen- 
tences that I select. 

Kind keepers of my weak decaying age ; 

P. Kind is an adjective in the positive degree. Pos. kind, Com. kinder, 
Super, kindest. 

Weak is an adjective ia the positive degree. Pos. weak, Com. weaker, 
Super, weakest. 

Decaying is an adjective, not varied by comparison, derived from decay 
by adding the suffix ing. 

Death lay on her, like an untimely frost 
Upon the sweetest flower of all the fields. 

L. An is an adjective, not varied by comparison. 

Untimely is an adjective, not varied in form bv comparison, derived 
from time by adding the suffix ly and the prefix un. 

Sweetest is an adjective in the Superlative degree. Pos. sweet, Com. 
sweeter, Super, sweetest. 

All and the are adjectives, not varied by comparison. 

9 



130 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

I am going to a better country and a milder clime. 

8. A is an adjective, Dot varied by comparison. 

Belter and milder are adjectives in the comparative degree. Pos. good, 
Com. better, Super, best. Pos. mild, Com. milder, Super, mildest. 

To'him what lovely scenes appear : 

I. What is an adjective, not varied by comparison. 
Lovely is an adjeenve in tbe posiiive degree, derived from love by ad- 
ding the suffix ly'. Pos. lovely, Com. lovelier, Super, loveliest. 

How mighty ! how majestic ! and how beautiful are Na- 
ture's works ! 

W. Mighty is an adjective in the positive degree, derived from might 
by adding the suffix y. Pos. migbty, Com. mightier, Super, mightiest. _ 

Majestic and beautiful are adjtctives, not varied in form by compari- 
son, derived from majesty and beauty by addiDg the suffixes ic and/wZ. 

Dr. S. Adjectives of more than one syllable not end- 
ing in le or y, are seldom varied in form by comparison ; 
but they may be varied in signification by the adverbs 
more and most placed before them. 

Conversation, whatever other qualities it may possess, is 
radically deficient, without the seasoning of genuine piety. 

M. Whatever and other are adjeetives, not varied by comparison' 
Dejicient is an adjective, not varied in form by comparison. 
The and genuine are adjectives, not varied by comparison. 

B. Why don't you tell what kind of adjectives they 
are. 

Dr. S. It is of little use in analyzing or correcting 
sentences, to classify our adjectives, and very difficult 
for learners to distinguish one sort from another : they 
all have about the same construction. I desire to teach, 
you what is useful, rather than to puzzle you with nice 
distinctions. To make a thorough scientific classifica- 
tion of them all, requires a dozen classes : common ; as, 
rude, gentle, high, low ; proper ; as, English, German, 
Ciceronean, Platonic : compound ; as, tender-hearted, 
grim-visaged, all-subduing : numei'al ; as, one, two, three, 
first, second, third, single or alone, double or two-fold, triple 
or threefold; distributive; as, each every, either, neither: 
definitive; as, the, this, that, these, those: indefinite; as, 
a, an, any, some, other : intensive ; as, own, even, very : 



EXERCISES IN PARSING. 131 

interrogative ; as, What book. ? W Inch book ? verbal 
or participial ; as, Smiling faces, Broken hearts : senten- 
tial ; as, A bold, defiant, come-ifyou-dare attitude : and 
connective ; as, I do not care which book you take. It 
is immaterial what names we call them. 

I. Let us parse some adverbs etymologically. 

Br. S. You may parse the adverbs in these sentences : 
The more you study, the faster you will learn. Fly 
swiftly round, ye wheels of time. 

If. The is an adverb, not varied by comparison. 

More and faster are adverbs, in the comparative degree. Pos. much, 
Com. more, Super, most; Pos. fist, Com. faster, Super, fastest. 

I. Swiftly is an adverb, not varied in form by comparison, derived 
from swift by addir.g the suffix ly. 

Bound is an adverb, not varied by comparisc-n. 

R. Why don't you mention the derivation of all 
these adverbs ? 

M. Because all of them but swiftly are primitive 
words, and are not derived from any words in our lan- 
guage; so are most of the adjectives that we have 
parsed. 

B. What is the use of saying any thing about com- 
parison, in parsing words that are not varied by it? 

Br. S. It is altogether useless, Robert. So you may 
omit it when you parse such words. 

B. Why don't you tell what sort of adverbs these 
are? 

Br. S. For the same reason that we do not classify 
our adjectives. 

Some grammarians divide adverbs into several dif- 
ferent classes : adverbs of number; as, once, twice, thrice: 
of order ; as, first, secondly, thirdly : of place ; as, here, 
there, where, hither, thither, whither, hence, thence, whence: 
of time ; as, now, to-day, lately, yesterday, hereafter, to- 
morrow, daily, often, sometimes : of quantity ; as, much, 
little, sufficiently, enough, abundantly: of manner or 
quality; as, well, ivisely : of doubt; as, perhaps, possibly : 
of allirrnation ; as, yes, yea, verily, truly: of negation; 
as, nay, no, not: of interrogation; as, how, why, &c* 

*See Brown's grammar, page SS, and Murray's grammar, page S3. 



132 ENGLISH GRAMMAPw 

J. ' What is comparison ? 

Dr. S. Comparison is a variation of an adjec- 
tive or adverb to express its signification in differ- 
ent degrees. 

There are three degrees of comparison; the 
positive, the comparative, and the superlative. 

The positive simply expresses the signification 
of an adjective or adverb ; the comparative ex- 
presses it in a higher degree ; and the superlative 
expresses it in the highest degree. 

S. How are adjectives and adverbs regularly com- 
pared ? 

Dr. S. By adding r or er, and st or est, to the positive : 
as, noble, nobler, noblest; mild, milder, mildest; often, 
oftener, oftenest. When this would make the pronuncia- 
tion disagreeable to the ear, we use more and most before 
the adjective or adverb ; varying it in sense but not in 
form: as, beautiful, more beautiful, most beautiful; beau- 
tifully, more beautifully, most beautifully. To express 
diminution we use less and least ; as, less beautiful, least 
beautiful. In such expressions the degrees of compari- 
son grammatically belong to the adverbs more and most, 
less and least, and they should be applied to them in 
parsing, not to the words they modify. The suffix ish 
is often used to diminish the signification of the adjec- 
tive below the positive : as, greenish, sourish ; somewhat 
green, somewhat sour : and rather placed before the ad- 
jective has about the same effect; as, rather green. 

We have some words in common use that are irregu- 
larly compared : as, good, better, best ; bad, icorse, worst ; 
luell, better, best; ill, worse, worst ; little, less, least; much 
or many, more, most ; far, farther, farthest, farmost, or 
fathermost; near, nearer, nearest or next; fore, former, fore- 
most or first ; lede, later or latter, latest or last ; in, inner, 
inmost or innermost ; out, outer or utter, outmost or idmost, 
outermost or idtermost ; up, upper, upmost or iippermost. 

B. Are prepositions varied by comparison ? 



EXERCISES IN PARSING. 133 

Dr. S. Yes; a few of them, when, they are used as 
adjectives or adverbs. 

B. Are there only three degrees of variation in the 
signification of adjectives and adverbs? _ * 

Dr. S. We can vary their signification infinitely, or 
at least indefinitely, by using adverbs or adverbial 
phrases before them : as, How much colder is it now 
than it was last week ? It is fifty degrees colder. " The 
earth moves a hundred and forty times faster than a can- 
non ball." " The evening star is a very splendid object, 
but the sun is incomparably more splendid." " He is 
immensely rich." " God is infinitely greater than the 
greatest of his creatures." In quantities that can be 
exactly measured, the degrees of excess can be exactly 
expressed. But, in regard to qualities, and to those 
quantities which cannot be measured exactly, it is im- 
possible" to say how many degrees may be comprehended 
in the comparative excess ; for human language can 
not be more accurate than human knowledge. How 
much longer is a foot than an inch ? How much wiser 
was Solomon than his son ? 

B. Twelve times longer. He was a great deal wiser ; 
but I can't tell exactly how much wiser. 

Dr. S. Parse syntactically the exclamations, nouns, 
pronouns, and adjectives, in the sentences that I select. 

Ah ! what avails the poet's magic power, 
When soul-benumbing Dullness rules the hour. 

R. Ah i3 an exclamation. 

What is an iuterrogative pronoun, in the neuter gender, singular num- 
ber, third person, and objective case ; the object of avails — Rule 2. 

The is an adjective ; belonging to pod's — Rule 8 : "An adjective belongs 
to a noun or pronoun." 

Poet's is a common noun, in the masculine gender, singular number, 
third person, and possessive case ; denoting possession or ownership — 
Rule 3. 

Magic is an adjective ; belonging to power — Rule 8. 

Power is a common uoun, in the neuter gender, singular number, third 
person, and nominative case ; the subject of avails— Rule 1. 

P. P. In parsing ah syntactically, why don't you ap- 
ply the rale : " Exclamations have no dependent con- 
struction ?" 



134 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

B. The object of parsing any word syntactically, is 
to tell what construction it has, and not what it has 
not. Therefore the application of a negative rule in 
parsing is absurd. I like the good old Quaker precept : 
"When you have nothing to say, say nothing." 

S. Why don't you tell what degree of comparison 
the adjectives are in? 

B. Because they are not varied by comparison. 

Dr. S. That's exactly right. Say nothing about com- 
parison, except in parsing adjectives or adverbs that 
are varied by it. Your omission of it will then be sig- 
nificant. 

J. Soul-benumbing is an adjective ; belonging to Dullness — Rule 8. 

Dullness is a common noun, in the neurer gender, singular number, 
third person, and nominative case; the subject of rules — Rule 1. 

The is an adjective ; belonging to hour — Rule 8. 

Hour is a common noun, in the neuter gender, singular number, third 
person, and objective case ; the object of rules — Rule 2. 

Dr. S. Here Dullness is personified, and it is therefore 
figuratively a proper noun in the feminine gender, 
though literally a common noun in the neuter gender. 

Why did I write ? what sin to me unknown 
Dipped me in ink ? my parents' or my own ? 

0. lis a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender, and singular num- 
ber ; agreeing with Pope— Rule 1 : in the first person, and nominative 
case; the subject of did write — Rule 1. 

What is an adjective ; belonging to sin — Rule 8. 

Sin is a common noun, in the neuter gender, singular number, third 
person, and nominative case ; the subject of dipped — Rule 1. 

Me is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender, and singular num- 
ber ; agreeing with Pope — Rule 7 : in the first person, and objective case ; 
the object of to — Rule 2. 

Unknown is an adjective; belonging to sin— Rule 8. 

W. Me is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender, and singular 
number ; agreeing with Pope— Rule V : in the first person, and objective 
case ; the object of dipped— Rule 2. 

Ink is a common noun, in the neuter gender, singular number, third 
person, and objective case ; the object of in— Rule 2. 

My is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender, and singular num- 
ber; agreeing with Pope — Rule 7: in the first person, and possessive 
case ; denoting possession or ownership — Rule 3. 

Parents' is a common ncu'j, In the masculine and feminine gender, plu- 
ral number, third person, and possessive case ; denoting possession or 
ownership — Rale 3. 

Own is an adjective; belonging to sin understood — Rule 8. 



EXERCISES m PARSINQ. 135 

Wbile jet a child, not yet a fool to fame, 
I lisped in numbers ; for the numbers came. 

M. Cldld and fool are common nouns, in the masculine gender, singular 
number, third person, and nominative case, in apposition with I- — Rule 4. 

A is an adjective; belonging to child and fool— Rule 8. 

Fame is a common noun in the neuter gender, singular number, third 
person, and objective case ; the object of to — Rule 2. . 

B. Are child and fool in apposition with If 

P. P. They are predicate nominatives ; agreeing in 
case with / understood : " While I was yet a child nor 
yet a fool to fame." 

M. How many kinds of nominatives have we, Mr- 
Puzzle ?" 

P.P. Four; subject nominatives, predicate nomina- 
tives, apposition nominatives, and nominatives inde- 
pendent. 

F. /is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender, and singular num- 
ber ; agreeing with Pope — Rule 7; in the first person, and nominative 
case; the subject of lisped — Rule 1. 

Numbers is a common noun, in the neuter gender, plural number, third 
person, and objective case ; the object of in — Rule 2. 

The is an adjective ; belonging to numbers — Rule 8. 

Numbers is a common noun, in the neuter gender, plural number, third 
person, and nominative case ; the subject of came— Rule 1. 

Dr. S. What do you think of Flora's parsing? Did 
you ever hear a girl but seven years old parse better ? 

P. P. I must acknowledge that you have accom- 
plished more than I expected. But you don't expect to 
make grammarians of little girls like her ? 

Dr. 8. If properly instructed, they can learn the true 
grammatical construction of every sentence that they 
clearly understand. I would not make them study 
grammar as a task, but talk with them occasionally 
about its principles, in plain, familiar language ; lead- 
ing them by imperceptible degrees from easy sentences 
to harder ones, till all of them are easy, and their gram- 
mar lessons, pleasant recreations. Parse the exclama- 
tions, nouns, pronouns, and adjectives, in the forty-third, 
forty-fourth, and forty-fifth chapters of Genesis: and 
then parse them in these sentences : 



136 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

A deep philosopher (whose rules 
Of moral life were drawn from schools) 
The shepherd's homely cottage sought, 
And thus explored his reach of thought : 
" Whence is thy learning ? Hath thy toil 
O'er books consumed the midnight oil J 
Hast thou old Greece and Rome surveyed, 
And the vast sense of Plato weighed 1 
Hath Socrates thy soul refined, 
And hast thou fathomed Tully's mind ? 
Or, like the wise Ulysses thrown, 
By various fates, on realms unknown, 
Hast thou through many cities strayed, 
Their customs, laws, and manners weighed?" 
The shepherd modestly replied, 
" I ne'er the paths of learning tried ; 
Nor have I roamed in foreign parts, 
To read mankind, their laws, and arts ; 
For man is practised in disguise ; 
He cheats the most discerning eyes. 
Who by that search shall wiser grow ? 
By that ourselves we never know. 
The little knowledge I have gained, 
Was all from simple nature drained ; 
Hence my life's maxims took their rise, 
Hence grew my settled hate of vice." 

Is there, (as ye sometimes tell us,) 

Is there one who reigns on high ? 
Has he bid you buy and sell us ? 

Speaking from his throne, the sky ? 
Hark ! he answers ! Wild tornadoes 

Strewing yonder seas with wrecks ; 
Wasting towns, plantations, meadows : 

These are the voices which he speaks. 
He, foreseeing what vexations 

Afric's sons should undergo, 
Placed their tyrants' habitations 

Where his whirlwinds answer, no. 
Slaves of gold, whose sordid dealings 

Tarnish all your boasted powers, 
Prove that you have human feelings, 
Ere you proudly question ours. 

Oft has it been my lot to mark 
A. proud, conceited, talking 6park, 
With eyes that hardly serve at most 
To guard their master 'gainst a post ; 
Yet round the world the blade has been, 
To see whatever could be seen : 
Returning from his finished tour, 
Grown ten times perter than before ; 
Whatever word you chance to drop, 
The traveled fool your mouth will stop : 



EXERCISES IN PARSING. 137 

" But if my judgment you'll allow — 
I've seen — and sure I ought to know" — 
So begs you'd pay a due admission, 
And acquiesce in his decision. 

Two travelers of such a cast, 
As o'er Arabia's wilds they passed, 
And on their way, in friendly chat, 
Now talked of this, and then of that, 
Discoursed a while, 'mong3t other matter, 
Of the chameleon's form and nature. 
" A stranger animal," cries one, 
" Sure never lived beneath the sun ! 
A lizard's body, lean and long, 
A fish's head, a serpent's tongue ! 
How slow its pace ! and then its hue — 
Who ever saw so fine a blue?" 

'' Hold there,- 1 ' the other quick replies, 
" 'Tis green — I saw it with these eyes." 
" I've seen it, friend, as well as you, 
And must again afSrm it blue." 
« ;ipj g green, 'tis green, I can assure ye." 
" Green," cries the other in a fury — 
" Why, do you think I've lost my eyes ?" 
" 'Twere no great loss ;" the friend replies ; 
" For if they always serve you thus 
You'll find them but of little use." 
So high at last the contest rose, 
From words they almost came to blows : 
When luckily came by a third — 
To him the question they referred ;. 
And begged he'd tell 'em, if he knew, 
Whether the thing was green or blue. 

" Come," cries the umpire, " cease your pother, 
The creature's neither one nor t'other : 
I caught the animal last night, 
And viewed it o'er by candle light : 
I marKedit well — 'twas black as jet— 
You stare— but I have got it yet, 
And can produce it." " Pray then do : 
For I am sure the thing is blue." 
" And I'll engage that when you've seen 
The reptile, you'll pronounce him green." 
" Well then, at once to ease the doubt," 
Replies the man, " I'll turn him out : 
And when before your eyes I've set him, 
if you don't find him black, I'll eat him." 
He said ; then full before their sight 
Produced the beast, and lo — 'twas white ! 
Both Btared ! the man looked wondrous w"i3e — 
" My children," the chameleon cries, 
(Then first the creature found a tongue,) 
" You all are right, and all are wrong : 
When next you talk of what you view, 



138 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Think others see as well as you : 
Nor wonder if you find that none 
Prefers your eye-sight to his own.'' 

What shameful words (unkingly as thou art) 

Fall from that trembling tongue and timorous heart? 

Oh, were thy sway the eurse of meaner powers, 

And thou the shame of any host but ours ! 

A host by Jove endued with martial might, 

And taught to coDquer, or to fall in fight : 

Adventurous combats and bold wars to wage, 

Employed our youth, and yet employs our age. 

And will thou thus desert the Trojan plain? 

And have whole streams of blood been spilt in vain ? 

In such base sentence if thou couch thy fear, 

Speak it in whispers lest a Greek should hear. 

Lives there a man so dead to fame, who dares 

To think such meanness, or the thought declares? 

And comes it e'en from hiaa whose sovereign sway 

The banded legions of all Greece obey? 

Is this a general's voice that calls to flight, 

While war hangs doubtful, while his soldiers fight? 

What more could Troy ? What yet their fate denies, 

Thou giv'st the foe : all Greece becomes their prize. 

No more the troops (our hoisted sails in view, 

Themselves abandoned) shall the fight pursue ; 

But thy ships flying, with despair shall'see ; 

And owe destruction to a prince like thee. 



CONVERSATION FIFTH, 



VARIATIONS OF VERBS. 

J. Dr. Syntax, do you see those squirrels yonder ? 
. Br. S. Yes ; I've been watching them some time, 
and learning from the book of nature. They have 
taught me quite a useful lesson. One of them illus- 
trates perseverance and unwavering attention ; and the 
other, fickleness and inattention. One selects a nut 
with a decisive air, finds out its vulnerable point, and 
then continues nibbling till he penetrates the shell and 
gets the kernel. He looks cheerful and contented, plump 
and sleek, as if he feased on fat things. The other looks 



VARIATIONS OF VERBS. 139 1 

unhappy, restless, discontented, lean, and lank. He 
takes a nut and bites the bitter rind, then makes a rue- 
ful face and drops it. Then he tries another, and an- 
other, and another, with the same result ; like fickle, 
inattentive, superficial students, passing rapidly from 
study to study, trying everything, but learning nothing 
thoroughly. Such students are forever nibbling at the 
outer crust of education ; but they never penetrate the 
shellTof scientific truth, or taste its hidden sweets. To- ' 
day we have a hard and bitter nut to crack. But it 
contains a sweet delicious kernel, which you cannot get 
without unwavering and continuous attention. 

ir~Th7ey are active little creatures. See them jump L 

K. I can't see any of their actions ; they are perfectly 
still. 

I. The actions that I saw are past and gone. You 
did not look quick enough to see them. Look ! see 
them jump again! 

Dr. S. Actions and events are evanescent. As the 
lightning, flashing from the bosom of a cloud, is swal- 
lowed up immediately by the jaws of night, and disap- 
pears before we can say, it lightens, so the greater part of 
actions and events are past and gone before we can relate 
them. But they leave behind impressions which, are 
treasured in the memory, rendered more or less complex 
by reflections, joined to subjects, and expressed in verbs 
as thoughts. When we consider any action or event, 
we must regard the time of its occurrence : so our 
thoughts are modified accordingly, and verbs are varied 
to express them. Though no action or event can 
real]y take place except in the present, yet the mind 
looks back on the past, and forward to the future, and 
embodies each of them in thought with actions and 
events. Thought and action coincide, and are con- 
temporary only in the present tense of the indicative 
mood ; for every action we perform is past and ceases 
to exist as soon as it is done : but the thought which it 
produces has a permanent existence in the mind of the 
observer. Therefore, strictly speaking, verbs do not 
express actions, but thoughts. The cohesive power of 



140 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

thought which holds the subject and the predicate to- 
gether, or unites the subject and the object, is the 
essence of the. verb. 

P. P. What authority have you for this new-fangled 
doctrine ? Is it not conceded by our best grammarians 
that the essence of the verb consists in action or asser- 
tion ? 

Dr. S. Many verbs express neither action nor asser- 
tion: as, u Are these things so ?" "Lie still and slum- 
ber." But every verb expresses thought, and without 
a verb no thought can be expressed. 

L. Dr. Syntax, you and Mr. Puzzle dive so deep that 
none of us can understand you. 

Dr. S. If you will pay attention, I will give you all 
an occular demonstration of the truth of my philosophy. 
See what I do, and mention every action you observe. 

R. You raise the ball and drop it on the desk. It 
bounds^ and rolls upon the floor. You pick it up, and 
throw it against the door ; then, as it falls, you catch it 
in your hand. 

Dr. S. Do you observe those actions now ? 

JR. No sir ; they have entirely ceased, and have no 
more existence now than if they had never been. 

Dr. S. They have left no trace of their existence 
anywhere except in memory, where they are treas- 
ured up as thoughts, already modified by reflection, 
which has superadded the idea of past time to that of 
action. Now these thoughts require a variation of the 
verbs to express them. 

P. I see ! I see ! "We must express them so as to 
denote past time, thus : You raised the ball, and dropped 
it on the desk. It bounded, and rolled upon the floor. 
You picked it up, and threw it against the door ; then, 
as it fell, you caught it in your hand. 

Dr. jS. Now write these sentences, and take particular 
notice how the verbs are varied to denote past time. 

S. All of them but three are varied in a regular 
manner ; they have d or ed added. Therefore, they are 
regular verbs. The others are not varied according to 



VARIATIONS OF VERBS. 141 

any regular method. Consequently they are called ir- 
regular verbs. 

A regular verb is a verb whose past tense and 
perfect participle are formed by adding ed to its 
present tense, or d only when it ends in e. 

An irregular verb is a verb whose past tense 
and perfect participle are not formed by adding 
ed, to its present tense, or d only when it ends in e. 

Dr. S. Is learn a regular or an irregular verb ? 

W. I learn, I learned, I have learned. Eegular be- 
cause its past tense and perfect participle are formed 
by adding ed to its present tense. 
• Dr. S. Is move regular or irregular ? 

J. I move, I moved, I have moved. Eegular, be- 
cause its past tense and perfect participle are formed by 
adding d to its present tense, which ends in e. 

Dr. S. Is write regular or irregular ? 

0. I write, I wrote, I have written. Irregular, be- 
cause its past tense and perfect participle are not formed 
by adding ed to its present tense or d only. 

Dr. S. Is go regular or irregular ? 

P. I go, I went, I have gone. Yery irregular. 

Dr. S. Is am regular or irregular ? 

L. I am, I was, I have been. Yery irregular indeed. 

Dr. S. As I repeat a few sentences, select the verbs 
and tell me whether they are regular or irregular. 

" I am found," said she, " in the vale, and I illu- 
minate the mountain ; I cheer the cottager at his toil, 
and inspire the sage at his meditations." 

K. Am found and said are irregular ; .and illuminate, 
cheer, and inspire, are regular. 

See the gay dandy in fine clothes arrayed, 
A brainless creature by the tailor made. 

1. See and made are irregular ; and arrayed is regular. 

Can all that optics teach unfold 

Thy form to please me so ; 
As when I dreamt of gems and gold, 

Hid in thy radiant bow ? 



142 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



J. How can we always tell whether a verb is regular 
or irregular ? 

Dr. jS. By committing to memory the list of irregu- 
lar verbs. Can any of you write them on the black- 
board ? Eobert, you may write them in the present 
tense ; and Phebe, in the past ; and Ida, in the perfect 
participle. 



Present. 


Past. 


Perf. Part. 


Present. 


Past. 


Perf. Part. 


Abide, 


abode, 


abode. 


Bear,f 


bore, 


borne. 


Am, 


was, 


been. 


Beat, 


beat, 


beaten, beat. 


Arise, 


arose, 


arisen. 


Begin, 


began, 


begun. 


Awake, 


awoke, K. 


awaked. 


Bend, 


bent, 


bent. 


Bear,* 


bare, 


born. 


Bereave, 


bereft, R. 


bereft, R. 


Beseech, 


besought, 


besought. 


Cling, 


clung, 


clung, 


Bid, 


bid, bade, 


bidden, bid 


1. Clothe, 


clothed, 


clothed, clad 


Bind, 


bound, 


bound. 


Come, 


came, 


come. 


Bite, 


bit, 


bitten, bit 


. Cost, 


cost, 


cost. 


Bleed, 


bled, 


bled. 


Crow # 


crew, R. 


crowed. 


Blow,' 


blew, 


blown. 


Creep, 


crept, 


crept. 


Break, 


broke, 


broken. 


Cut, 


cut, 


cut. 


Breed, 


bred, 


bred. 


Dare,§ 


durst, R. 


dared. 


Bring, 


brought, 


brought. 


Deal, 


dealt, R. 


dealt, R. 


Build, 


built, R. 


buil i, R. 


Big, 


dug, R. 


dug, R. 


Burst, 


burst, 


burst. 


Do, 


did, 


done. 


Buy, 


bought, 


bought. 


Draw, 


drew, 


drawn. 


Cast, 


cast, 


cast. 


Dream, 


dreamt, R 


. dreamt, R. 


Catch, 


caught, R. 


caught, R. 


Dnok, 


drank. 


drunk,drank 


Choose, 


chose, 


chosen. 


Dwell, 


dwelt, R. 


dwelt, R. 


Chide, 


chid, 


j chidden, 

I chid, 
cleft, 
cloven. 


Diive, 


drove, 


driven. 


Cleave,^: 


( clove, 
I cleft, 


Eat, 


eat, ate, 


eaten. 


Fall, 


fell. 


fallen. 


Grow, 


grew, 


grown. 


Feel, 


felt, 


felt. 


Bung, 


hung, R. 


hung, R. 


Fight, 


fought, 


fought. 


Have, 


had, 


lad 


Find, 


found, 


found. 


Hear, 


heard, 


heard. 


Flee, 


fled, 


fled. 


Hew, 


hewed, 


heweu, R. 


Fiing, 


flung, 


flung. 


Hide, 


hid, 


hidden, hid. 


Fly, 


flew, 


flown. 


Hit, 


hit, 


hit. 


Forsake, 


forsook, 


forsaken. 


Bold, 


held. 


held. 


Freeze, 


froze, 


frozen. 


Hurt, 


hurt, 


hurt. 


Get, 


got, 


got || 


Keep, 


kept. 


kept. 


Gild, 


gilt, R. 


gilt, R. 


Eueel, 


knelt, R 


knelt, R. 


Gird, 


girt, R. 


g<rt, R. 


Knit, 


knit, R. 


knit, Rl 


Give, 


gave, 


given. 


Know, 


knew, 


known. 


Go, 


went, 


gone. 


Lade, 


laded, 


l&deo, R. 



* Bear to bring forth . t Bear to carry. t Cleave to split. § Dare to venture. 
1 Gotten is nearly obsolete. Its derivative forgotten is still in good use. 



VARIATIONS OF VERBS. 



143 



Grave, 


graved, 


graven, R. 


Lay, 


laid, 


laid, 


Grind, 


ground, 


ground. 


Lead, 


led, 


led. 


Leave, 


left, 


left. 


Ring, 


rung, rang, 


rung. 


Lend, 


lent, 


lent. 


Rise, 


rose, 


risen, 


Let, 


let, 


let. 


Rive, 


rived, 


riven, R. 


Lie,* 


lay, 


lain. 


Run, 


raD, 


run. 


Light, 


lit, R. 


lit, R. 


Saw, 


sawed, 


sawn, R. 


Lose, 


lost, 


lost. 


Sav, 


said, 


said. 


Make, 


made, 


made, 


See, 


saw, 


seen. 


Mean, 


rnean, R. 


meant, R. 


Seek, 


sought, 


sought. 


Meet, 


met, 


met. 


Sell, 


sold, 


sold. 


Mow, 


mowed, 


mown, R. 


Send, 


sent, 


sent. 


Pay, 


paid, 


paid. 


Set, 


set, 


set. 


Put, 


put, 


put. 


Shake, 


shook, 


shaken. 


Quit, 


quit, R. 


quit, R. 


Shape, 


shaped, 


shapen, 


Read, 


read, 


read. 


Shave, 


shaved, 


shaven, R. 


Rend, 


rent, 


rent. 


Shear, 


sheared, 


shorn, R. 


Rid, 


rid, 


rid. 


Shine, 


shone, R. 


shone, R. 


Ride, 


rode, 


rode, f 


Shoe, 


shod, 


shod. 


Show, 


showed, 


shown, R. 


Spend, 


spent, 


spent. 


Shoot, 


shot, 


shot. 


Spill, 


spilt, R. 


spilt, R, 


Shred, 


shred, 


shred. 


Spin, 


spun, 


spun. 


Shrink, 


shrunk, 


shrurk. 


Spic, 


spit, spat, 


spit. 


Shut, 


shut, 


shut. 


Split, 


split, 


split. 


Sing, 


sung, sang 


i sung, 


Spread, 


spread, 


spread. 


Sink, 


sunk, sank. 


, sunk. 


Spring, 


j sprang, 
( Sprung, 


sprung, 


Sit, 


sat, 


sat, 


Stand, 


stood, 


stood. 


Slay, 


slew, 


slain. 


Steal, 


stole, 


stolen. 


SleeD, 


slept, 


slept. 


Stick, 


stuck, 


stuck. 


Slide, 


slid, 


slidden, slid.Sting, 


stuug, 


stung. 


Sling, 


slung, 


slung. 


Slink, 


stunk, 


stunk. 


Slink, 


sluak, 


slunk. 


Stride, 


strode, strid,striddeQ. 


Slit, 


slit, R. 


slit, R. 


Strike, 


struck, 


struck. 


Smite, 


smote, 


smitten. 


String, 


strung, R. 


strung, R. 


Sow, 


sowed, 


sown, R. 


Strive, 


strove, R. 


striven, R. 


Speak, 


spoke, 


spoken. 


Strow, 


strowed, 


strown, R. 


Speed, 


sped, 


sped. 


Swear, 


swore, 


sworn. 


Sweat, 


swet, R. 


swet, R. 


Tread, 


trod, 


j trodden, 
( trod, 
waked. 


Swell, 


swelled, 


swollen, R. 


Wake, 


woke, R. 


Swim, 


swum,swam, swum. 


Wear, 


wore, 


worn. 


Swing, 


swung, 


swung, 


Weave, 


wove, 


woven. 


Taice, 


took, 


taken, 


Ween, 


wept, 


wept. 


Teach, 


taught, 


taught, 


Win, 


won. 


won. 


Tear, 


tore, 


torn, 


Wind, 


wound, 


wound 


Tell, 


told, 


told. 


Work, 


j worked, 

( wrought 


worked. 
, wrought. 


Think, 


thought, 


thought, 


Wring, 


wrung, 


wrung. 


Thrust, 


thrust, 


thrust. 


Write, 


wrote, 


written. 


Thrive, 


throve, R. 


thriven, R 








Tbrow, 


threw, 


thrown. 









t Ridden ia nearly obsolete. 



144 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Dr. S. Why do you write R after the past tense 
and perfect participle of some of these irregular verbs? 

P. Because some of them are occasionally used as 
regular verbs ; R. stands for regular. When the regu- 
lar form is preferable, we write it before the irregular 
form at full length ; and when a verb has two irregular 
forms, we write that first which is sanctioned by the 
best authority. 

Dr. S. Have you written all the irregular verbs ? 

R. All the primitive irregular verbs. "We have 
omitted derivatives ; as, foresee, oversee, forget, outrun, 
overtake, understand, undergo, foreknown, outsell, outspeak, 
overgrow, overset, overthrow, interweave, &c. ; whose past 
tense and perfect participle are, generally, formed like 
the past tense and perfect participle of the verbs from 
which they are derived. 

Dr. S. Some thoughts are confined to their subjects; 
as, The sun shines. The earth moves. Others, reaching 
out, and grasping something else, extend beyond their 
subjects ; passing, as it were, from one thing to another 
by a sort of mental transition, and associating with 
their subjects, objects, or agents; as, the sun warms 
the earth. The earth is attracted by the sun. Hence, 
verbs are divided into two classes ; transitive and in- 
transive 

A transitive verb is a verb that expresses a 
transition or extension of thought from one per- 
son or thing" to another. 

An intransitive verb is a verb that does not ex- 
press a transition or extension of thought beyond 
its subject. 

P. P. Your definitions are too metaphysical for chil- 
dren. 

Dr. S. If you don't like them make us better ones. 

P t P. A transitive verb is a verb that expresses an 
action done by one person or thing to another ; as, I 
see the sun. The sun is seen by me. 



VARIATIONS OF VERBS. 145 

An intransitive verb is a verb that expresses the be- 
ing or state of its subject, or an action not done to 
another ; as, I am, I sleep, I wake, I rise, I look at the 
sun. 

Dr. & "What more do you do to the sun by seeing it 
than by looking at it ? 

P. P. What do I do to the sun ! "Why, I see it. 

B. I hope you will not darken it, as you do all other- 
subjects that j^ou touch. 

P. P. You little son of darkness ! will you never" 
learn good manners ? [Striking with the birch, and 
kicking him by turns.] 

I. That was a striking illustration of transitive verbs. 

B. Yes ; and a kicking illustration too : the actions 
passed from him to me in copious showers of birch, 
and terrible claps of shoe-leather. ISTow these actions 
and their quick transitions have entirely ceased ; yet 
all the thoughts impressed upon my mind and their 
transitions still continue. They will never cease while 
memory holds her seat. 

M. Ye shall know the truth. Eemember me. Love 
your enemies. Obey your parents. Fear God. Honor 
the king. Have charity towards all men. What kind 
of verbs are these ? 

P. P. They are transitive verbs. 

M. Does any of them express an action done by one 
person or thing to another. 

Dr. S. No ; every one of them expresses a transition 
of thought instead of action. Why are Mr. Puzzle's 
definitions like the quack's medicine ? 

B. Because they very seldom hit the case. But his 
striking illustrations very often hit a pretty hard case, 
as I have learned to my smart. 

Dr. S. Select the verbs in these sentences, and tell 
us whether they are transitive or intransitive. 

I pick this rose, and hold it in my hand. 
W. Pick and hold are transitive. 

Where 'er we turn thy glories shine ; 
And all things fair and bright are thine. 

10 



146 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 

I. Turn, shine, and are, are intransitive. 

The sun sets at night and the stars shun the day, 
But glory remains while the light fades away. 

P. Sets is intransitive ; and shuns is transitive. 

K. Remains and fades are transitive. 

B. Glory remains what ? the light fades what ? 

K. Why, nothing at all. 

B. Then these verbs have no objects, and of course, 
they are intransitive ; for they express no transition of 
thought: a transitive verb must have an object either 
expressed or implied. 

Dr. S. A transitive verb in the active voice you 
mean. 

B. That is exactly what I meant to say ; for in the 
passive voice a transitive verb has no object. 

J. Do verbs have voices then ? What do you mean 
by the voice of a verb ? 

Dr. S. Voice is a particular form of the verb 
which shows the relation of the subject to the 
thought expressed by the verb. 

Transitive verbs have two voices ; the active, 
and the passive. 

The active voice is that form which expresses a 
transition of thought from the subject to an ob- 
ject. 

The passive voice is that form which expresses 
a transition of thought to the subject from an 
agent. 

P. P. Why don't you say transition of action, instead 
of. thought, and make your definitions less abstruse ? 
Do not thought and action correspond with one another ? 
When an act is done by one person or thing to another, 
does it not excite a corresponding transition of thought 
in each observer's mind : as, I whipped Eobert ; Eobert 
was whipped by me ? Here, wh ippecl expresses a transi- 
tion of action from its subject, I, to its object Robert; 
and ivas whipped expresses a transition of action to its 



VARIATIONS OF VERBS. 147 



subject, Robert, from me, the agent. Therefore, 

is iii the active voice, and was ivhipped, in the passive. 

Dr. /S. The difference consists in a variation of 
thought, and not of action ; for the action is the same, 
no matter whether we express it in the active or the 
passive voice ; but by observing it from different points 
of view, the thought is varied. When we fix our atten- 
tion on the actor as the subject of our thoughts, and 
see the action passing from the subject to an object, 
there is a corresponding transition of thought, and we 
express it in the active voice ; but when we fix 
our attention on the object of the action as the sub- 
ject, and from this point of view observe the action 
passing to the subject from an agent, there is a corres- 
ponding transition of thought, and we express it in the 
passive voice. There are many transitive verbs that do 
not express any actual transition of action : as, John 
resembles his father. " Believest thou the prophets?" 
" Avoid bad company." " Ye shall seek me, but shall not 
find me. " "We revere those ancient worthies ; we admire 
their noble deeds, and emulate their virtues." " He ivas 
loved and esteemed by all who Jcneiv him." Though there 
is no real transition of action here expressed by any of 
these verbs, yet there is an actual transition of thought 
glancing from each subject to an object, and connecting 
them together in the mind. 

0. We feel the cooling breezes, smell the fragrant 
flowers, and hear the birds sing. Does feel, smell, or hear 
express an action passing from its subject to an object? 
Do we do any thing to the breezes, flowers, or birds ? 

Dr. S. No : the transition of action is reversed ; for 
we have no effect at all upon the breezes, flowers, and 
birds, but they affect us. Therefore, speaking philo- 
sophically, the actions pass from them to us, so that the 
subject of thought is the object of action; and yet 
these verbs are in the active voice ; for they express an 
actual transition of thoughts glancing from the subject 
to the breezes, flowers, and birds. Verbs that express 
our sensations and perceptions, generally, have this 
construction : we regard ourselves as active in observing 



148 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

outward objects, and the mind as reaching out and 
grasping everything that we perceive ; and we express 
our thoughts accordingly. Let us drop this metaphysi- 
cal subject, and proceed to something practical and 
useful. Mr. Puzzle can explain it to you at his leisure. 
"We will have an exercise in changing transitive verbs 
from the active to the passive voice. 

I pick this rose, and give it to Ida. 

P. This rose is picked by me and given to Ida. 

I throw this ball. I catch in my hand. 

I. This ball is thrown by me. It is caught in my 
hand. 

I drop it on the floor and roll it across the room. 

& It is dropped on the floor and rolled across the 
room. 

It drops on the floor and rolls across the room. 

B. Drops and rolls are intransitive; and of course, 
they can't be changed into the passive voice. 

Fortune smiles on us. 

J. We are smiled by fortune — no: we are smiled 
on by fortune. 

Why do you laugh at John ? 

M. Why is John laughed at by you ? 

W. Must on and at be parsed as parts of these verbs ? 

P. P. In the active voice on and at are prepositions 
governing the objective case ; and, therefore, the verbs 
are intransitive. But in the passive voice they are ad- 
verbs ; and the verbs, transitive. 

L. What ! intransitive verbs in the active voice 
changed to transitive verbs in the passive voice ! 

Dr. S. In the passive voice these prepositions are 
undoubtedly component parts of the verbs ; for with- 
out them these verbs would be intransitive, and could 
not be used in the passive voice : to say we are smiled 
or John is laughed, is not good English. Therefore, you 
should parse are smiled on and is laughed at as compound 
transitive verbs in the passive voice ; and then, to be 
consistent, you must parse smiles on and do laugh at as 
compound transitive verbs in the active voice ; for the 
active and the passive voice are only variations of the 



• VARIATIONS OF VERBS. i49 

same verb. But be extremely careful not to extend 
this license too far. Before you parse a preposition 
and an intransitive verb together as a compound transi- 
tive verb in the active voice, be sure that they are used 
together in the passive voice by good authority ; for the 
passive voice determines their construction. Preposi- 
tions placed before intransitive verbs as prefixes, gen- 
erally, change them to transitive verbs : as, The river 
flows. It overflows its banks. " Stand still." " With- 
stand your adversary." " Understandest thou this?" 
" If we go to sea, we must expect to undergo hardships." 
When established custom has united any verb and pre- 
position to express a thought; what difference does it 
make in the grammatical construction, whether the 
preposition follows or -precedes the verb? 

P. P. Are not transitive verbs and prepositions 
sometimes taken together ? 

Dr. S. Yes, occasionally ; as, oversee, undersell, up- 
hold. This combination sometimes gives a new mean- 
ing to the verb ; as, inform, forgive, overthrow, undertake, 
withdraw, cast up, give up, give over, hear of, think of, 
speak of, see to, care for. 

The clerk has cast up your account. 

I. Your account has been cast up by the clerk. 

The doctors have given her over. 

K. She has been given over by the doctors. 

I have heard of this great orator ; but I have never 
heard him. 

F. This great orator has been heard of by me ; but he 
has never been heard by me. 

I will never give up the ship. He was never heard of 
afterwards. 

P. The ship shall never be given up by me. We 
never heard of him afterwards. 

The good shepherd takes care of the sheep ; but the 
hireling cares chiefly for the fleece. 

M. The sheep are taken care of by the good shepherd, 
but the fleece is chiefly cared for by the hireling. 

P. P. Care is taken of the sheep by the good shep- 



150 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 

herd. What authority have we for using nouns as parts 
of verbs ? 

M. Is not the Bible good authority. " On their part 
he is evil spoken of." 

P. P. Is not evil an adverb in this sentence ? 

Dr. S. I think not. They speak evil of him. He is 
evil spoken of by them. By close attention you will see 
that the same thought that is expressed in the active 
voice, may (with but a slight variation) be expressed 
in the passive voice, by making the object of the verb 
the subject. As intransitive verbs have no objects to 
become subjects, they, of course, cannot be used in the 
passive voice. By this criterion you can easily dis- 
tinguish them. 

R. Can intransitive verbs be used in the active voice ? 

Dr. S. No ; for active and passive are correlative 
terms; the active voice necessarily implies a corres- 
ponding passive voice. Therefore, neither voice can 
properly be applied to intransitive verbs. 

M. Why do verbs have two voices to express the 
same thoughts ? 

Dr. S. For the sake of unity, variety, and beauty, 
flexibility and harmony. Besides, we often wish to tell 
what has been done without mentioning the doer ; as, 
My book is torn. The water is frozen, and the glass is 
broken. My watch was stolen. He ivas robbed and mur- 
dered. Now distinguish the transitive and the intransi- 
tive verbs, tell which voice the transitive verbs are in r 
and change them from the active to the passive voice, 
and from the passive to the active. 

The name of Cassius honors this corruption. 

0. Honors is a transitive verb in the active voice. 
This corruption is honored by the name of Cassius. 

Other misfortunes may be borne, or their effects overcome. If 
disastrous war should sweep our commerce from the ocean, an- 
other generation may renew it. 

W. May be borne and overcome are transitive verbs in the passive 
voice. Should sweep aud may renew are transitive verbs in the active 
voice. 



VARIATIONS OF VERBS. 151 

We may bear other misfortunes, or overcome their 
effects. If bur commerce should be swept from the ocean 
by disastrous war, it may be renewed by another genera- 
tion. 

If it exhaust our treasury, future industry may replenish 
it. If it desolate and lay waste our fields, still, under a new 
cultivation, they will grow green again, and ripen to future 
harvest. 

R. Exhaust, may replenish, desolate, and lay, are transitive verbs in the 
active voice ; but grow and ripen are intransitive verbs, and can not be 
varied by either voice. 

If our treasury be exhausted, it may be replenished 
by future industry. If our fields be desolated and 
laid waste by war, still, under a new cultivation, they 
will grow green again, and ripen to future harvests. 

It were but a trifle, even if the wall of yonder capitol 
were to crumble, if its lofty pillars should fall, and its gor- 
geous decorations be all covered by the dust of the valley. 
All these might be rebuilt. 

P. Were, to crumble, and should fall are intransitive verbs. Be cov- 
ered and might be rebuilt are transitive verbs in the passive voice. 

It were a trifle, even if the wall of yonder capitol 
were to crumble, if its lofty pillars should fall, and the 
dust of the valley cover all its gorgeous decorations. 
"We might rebuild all these. 

But who shall reconstruct the fabric of demolished govern- 
ment ? Who shall rear again the well proportioned columns 
of constitutional liberty? Who shall frame together the 
skillful architecture which unites national sovereignty with 
state rights ? 

L. 8hall reconstruct, shall rear, shall frame, and unites, are transitive 
verbs in the active voice. 

But by whom shall the fabric of demolished govern- 
ment be reconstructed? By whom shall the well propor- 
tioned columns of constitutional liberty be reared 
again? ' By whom shall the skillful architecture be 
framed together by which national sovereignty is united 
with state rights ? 



152 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The chieftain's gripe his throat compressed, 
His knee was planted on his breast. 

A. His throat was compressed by the chieftain's gripe. 
F. His knee he planted, on his breast. 

She moves a goddess, and she looks a queen. 

K. A goddess is moved and a queen is looked by her. 

Tom struts a soldier, open, bold, and brave. 

W. A soldier, open, bold, and brave, is strutted by 
Tom. 

R. A soldier is strutted by Tom ! William ! what 
tremendous strutting ! 

Dr. S. Moves, holes, and struts are intransitive verbs ; 
and goddess, queen and soldier, predicate nominatives, 
after them. Of course, they cannot be used as subjects 
of these verbs in the passive voice ; for none but the 
direct objects of transitive verbs can be so used. 

These are Clan- Alpine's warriors true, 
And Saxon, — I am Roderick Dhu ! 

M. Are and am are intransitive verbs ; and warriors 
and Roderick Dhu are predicate nominatives after them. 

Thou shalt not kill. Thou shalt not steal. 
Let us eat and drink : for to-morrow we die. 

P. P. These are intransitive verbs ; they have no 
objects, and, of course, they cannot be used passively. 

R. Can we kill or steal without killing or stealing 
something ? or eat and drink without eating and drink- 
ing something ? 

Dr. S. Shall kill shall steal, and eat and drinh y are 
transitive verbs of indefinite extension, limited by no 
particular objects, but expressing a transition of thought 
to something understood. Some transitive verbs are 
occasionally used intransitively with a passive significa- 
tion: as, The ice melts. The water freezes. Maple splits 
and burns better than beech. Though intransitive 
verbs are not distinguished by the active and the pas- 
sive voice, }^et some of them are now and then used in 
the passive form : as, " They aregone" " He is fallen." 



VARIATIONS OF VERBS. 153 

"All now are fled.'' 1 All such verbs should be called 
intransitive in parsing. Many verbs that are generally 
intransitive, are sometimes used as transitive verbs : as, 
" They stared him in the face and looked him out of 
countenance." "I sat me dowD." "The storm has 
howled itself to rest." " She smiles the wrinkles from 
the brow of age." "Let me live the life and die the 
death of the righteous." 

K. Give us a little clearer explanation of transitive 
and intransitive verbs, and of the active and the passive 
voice. 

Dr. S. Look, and you shall have an occular demon- 
stration : fix your attention on me, and see if you can 
discover any transition of action. 

J. I can't discover any transition of action. You 
move; but you don't move anything. Now there is a 
transition of action ; for the action passes from you to 
the chair: you move the chair. Move expresses this 
transition of action, or, (to speak more philosophically,) 
the thought which it impresses on our minds, and there- 
fore, is a transitive verb. You are the subject of the 
thought expressed by move ;' and chair, the object: so 
the action passes from the subject to an object, and 
produces a corresponding transition of thought ; and, 
therefore, moves is a transitive verb in the active voice, 
expressing a transition of thought from the subject to 
an object. 

Dr. >S! Now fix your attention on the chair, make 
that the subject, and observe the action from a different 
point of view, and then express the thought produced 
by it accordingly. 

P. The chair is moved by 3*011. Now, as all of us 
can see, the action passes to the subject chair from the 
agent you, producing in our minds a corresponding 
transition of thought. Is moved is therefore a transitive 
verb in the passive voice ; expressing a transition of 
thought to its subject from an agent. 

Dr. S. John opens the book, and holds it in his hand. 
He shuts it, and lays it on the desk. What kind of 
verbs are opens, holds, shuts, and lays. 



154 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

F Transitive verbs in the active voice, expressing 
actions that pass from the subject John to the object 
book. 

Dr. S. Change them from the active to the passive 
voice. 

H. The book is opened by John and held in his hand. 

It is shut by him, and laid on the desk. 

Dr. S. The transition of action and of thought in 
each of these examples coincides; but sometimes it 
does not: as, I own a farm in England, which I have 
never seen. I like the story of the honest Dutchman. 
He received a severe reprimand. The rich despise the 
poor ; and the poor envy the rich. Here is no transition 
of action expressed by any of these verbs ; but each of 
them expresses an actual transition of thought. In- 
transitive verbs express no transition of thought or ac- 
tion. 

A. I can see how an action passes from one thing to 
another ; but transition of thought I can't understand. 

Dr. S. Do you remember what was done here yes- 
terday ? 

A. Yes, sir : Mr. Puzzle whipped William. 

Dr. S. Is whipped a transitive or intransitive verb. 

K. A transitive verb, because it expresses an action 
passing from Mr. Puzzle to William. 

Dr. S. Is it in the active or the passive voice ? 

J. It is in the active voice, because it expresses an 
action passing from its subject, Mr. Puzzle, to its object 
William. 

Dr. S. Change it from the active to the passive 
voice. 

F. William was whipped by Mr. Puzzle. William 
is the subject now ; and was whipped is in the passive 
voice, because it expresses an action passing to its sub- 
ject from the actor, Mr. Puzzle. 

Dr. S. Where is this action, Flora ? Can you see it ? 
Is it in existence now ? 

F. no ; it has entirely ceased forever, and exists no 
more except in memory. But I see how Mr. Puzzle 



VARIATIONS OF VERBS. 155 

looked and acted just as plainly now as I did yester- 
day. 

Dr. S. You see it with the mind's eye, Flora, It has 
ceased to be an action, and become a thought engraven 
on the memory as a picture of the action passing from 
the subject to an object, or to the subject from an agent. 
This is what we call transition of thought. Some ac- 
tions are impressed so vividly upon the memory, and 
produce such glowing thoughts, that they can never be 
effaced. Impressions made in childhood are as bright 
as ever in old age. From momentary actions spring 
immortal thoughts that wander through eternity. We 
teachers should be careful what we do before our pupils. 
Keen observing eyes are watching our proceedings. 
Every act of kindness or severity, each smile and 
frown, tone, look and gesture, all we do or say, is mir- 
rored in their minds, and treasured there as good or evil 
thoughts, to bless or blast our 'names forever. 

F. I can't see how actions are impressed upon the 
mind as thoughts. 

M. I can very clearly. So can you, if you examine 
your own thoughts attentively. Think what you have 
seen done ; and all the actions that you recollect will 
spring up fresh in memory, mirrored there as thoughts. 
Twelve years ago, when I was only four years old, I 
saw the Indians murder all our family but me ; and I 
can see them yet. Their horrid looks and deeds are 
pictured in my memory as bright as ever. I can see 
them seize my mother by the hair and torture her to 
death, and cut to pieces all my brothers and my sisters. 
Oh ! their piteous cries and shrieks have ever since been 
ringing in my ears ! I see my father bravely fighting 
to defend us, till he falls all covered with blood ; and 
then I hear a savage yell and loud hurrah^ and see our 
soldiers rushing to the rescue, and the Indians cloven 
down with sabres and transfixed with bayonets. Such 
thoughts as these can never be effaced or banished from 
the mind. 

H. I see ! I see ! I understand how thoughts can 
spring from actions pictured in the memory. I rcmem- 



156 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

ber what was done at the caravan three years ago, when 
I was only three years old, and what I thought. A big 
red lion*broke loose from his cage, and caught a man in 
his mouth. He carried him about and craunched him 
as a cat does a mouse. That night when I had gone to 
bed and shut my eyes, I still could see the lion crunch- 
ing the poor man as plain as ever. Then I thought of 
what my mother read to me about our adversary the 
devil, who goeth about like a roaring lion, seeking whom 
he may devour. So I said my prayers and went to 
sleep. But I could see devouring lions in my 
dreams all night. 

Dr. S. All the actions that appear to us in dreams, 
and all our recollections and anticipations of actions 
and events, are thoughts. By observation and reflec- 
tion, we regard an action or event as actually taking 
place, or having taken place already, or certain to take 
place hereafter ; or, as possible, necessary, obligatory, 
or depending on the power or will of the subject ; or as 
subjoined to another action or event as a condition, 
hypothesis, or contingency; or we desire it to take 
place at our command or request ; or we consider it in 
a general and unlimited manner. The little child be- 
gins to make his observations and reflections on the 
candle, cat and dog ; and has such thoughts as these ; 
" The candle burns, the cat scratches, and the dog 
lites" impressed upon his mind by sad experience ; and 
when he sees another child taking hold of them, he 
thinks if he cannot say, " Bout touch the candle : it 
will burn your fingers if you take hold of it. Dorit 
plague puss; for if you do, shell scratch you." As he 
grows older, and his views enlarge, he makes shrewd 
observations on the weather, with such thoughts as 
these impressed upon his mind ; "I think it will rain 
to-morrow, if the wind continue in the East. It may 
rain to-day. I thought it would rain yesterday before 
I could get home from school." Thus, simple thoughts 
are modified and rendered complex by reflection, as we 
consider the conditions, circumstances and contin- 
gencies, that actions and events depend on, and the 



VARIATIONS OF VERBS. 157 

time of their occurrence ; and, to express the different 
modifications of our thoughts requires corresponding 
variations of the verbs, called moods and tenses. 

Mood is a particular variation of a verb in 
form or application, to express a certain modifica- 
tion of thought. 

There are five moods ; the indicative, the po- 
tential, the subjunctive, the imperative, and the 
infinitive. 

The indicative mood indicates the actual occur- 
rence of an action or event, or the real existence 
of a fact. 

The potential mood denotes the possibility or 
necessity of a fact, or of an action or event, or 
the liberty, power, will, or obligation of the sub- 
ject with respect to it. 

The subjunctive mood denotes the subjoining 
of one thought to another as a condition, supposi- 
tion, or contingency. 

The imperative mood denotes a command or 
request. 

The infinitive mood expresses a thought in a 
general and unlimited manner. 

The thought expressed by a verb in the indicative 
mood, is based on the actual occurrence of an action or 
event, or on the real existence of a fact ; but in the 
potential mood, on the possibility or necessity of its 
occurrence or existence, or the liberty, power, will, or 
obligation of the subject with respect to it. A thought 
may be expressed affirmatively, or negatively, or inter- 
rogatively, in each of these moods. In the indicative 
mood we affirm, or den}", or inquire after the actual 
occurrence of an action or event, or the real existence 
of a fact ; as, He pays his debts. He is honest. He 
does not pay his debts. He is not honest. Does he 
pay his debts ? Is lie honest ? In the potential mood, 



158 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

we affirm, or deny, or inquire after the possibility or 
necessity of the occurrence of an action or event, or 
the existence of a fact, or the liberty, power, will, or 
obligation of the subject with respect to it : as, He can 
pay his debts. He may be honest. He can not 'pay 
his debts. He may not be honest. Can he pay his 
debts ? Can he be honest ? If you cannot distinguish 
the potential mood from the indicative by the defini- 
tions, you can do it by the signs. These little words : 
may, can, and must, might, could, would, and should, are 
the signs of the potential mood. May and might denote 
possibility or liberty ; must, necessity ; can and could, 
power ; would, will ; and should obligation : as, " The 
young may die and the old must die." "You may go 
or stay." "They might have done better." "His 
brethren could not answer him." " I icould not live al- 
ways." " /Should a man full of talk be justified." 

F. Are all these verbs in the potential mood ? 

Dr. S. Certainly. Observe them closely ; and you'll 
have no trouble in distinguishing this mood. The sub- 
junctive mood is not so easily distinguished. It is 
generally preceded by if, though, unless, excejyt, that, or 
whether, and thus connected to some other mood so 
as to represent the action or event as doubtful, hypothet- 
ical, conditional, or contingent : as, If you will work for 
me to-morrow, I will pay you two dollars. " Though 
he slay me, yet will I trust in him." " How can we 
expect our wages, unless we work" " That which thou 
sowest is not quickened, except it die." "Answer a 
fool according to his folly, lest he be wise in his own 
conceit." " Judge not, that ye be not judged." " Whether 
it were I or they, so we preach." lj and that are some- 
times omitted before the subjunctive mood: as, " Were 
he good, he would be happy." " See thou do it not." 
In each of these examples, the thought expressed in 
the subjunctive mood is subjoined to another, and can- 
not stand alone. Hence, this mood is called subjunctive. 
A verb in the infinitive mood expresses a sort of col- 
lateral thought glancing obliquely at its subject, and 
uniting with the leading thought without a connective : 



VARIATIONS OF VERES. 159 

as, " I speak not this to condemn you." " They died to 
save their country." " I am ready to he offered.''' " To 
see the nakedness of the land ye are come." The sign 
of this mood is to, as all of you can see. But it is now 
and then omitted : as, Let me go. See them fly, and 
hear them sing. 

J. Has the imperative mood any sign ? 

Dr. K ISTo ; but you can easily distinguish it. The 
thought expressed by a verb in the imperative mood 
originates in a desire to have the action or event take 
place, not in its actual occurrence, and naturally as- 
sumes the language of direct address in the shape of a 
command or request, according to the disposition and 
authority of the speaker, and the character of the per- 
son addressed. We are apt to command our inferiors, 
and request our superiors. But Christian kindness and 
humility soften down our natural imperiousness, and 
change commands to requests. The smallest child can 
understand from our tones of voice and manner of 
speaking, whether we intend to command or request. 
The same words differently spoken, may express a com- 
mand or request : as, Come in, boys. Shut the door. 
Take your seats. Come in, boys. Shut the door. Take 
your seats. 

H. You first request, and then command. 

Dr. S. Teachers of a kind and gentle disposition, 
generally request their pupils to obey their orders, and . 
secure obedience by. kindness, moral suasion, affability, 
and uniform politeness. It is more agreeable to human 
nature, to obey a request than a command. We are 
created free moral agents, and of course, we hate to be 
compelled : compulsion is to us the very essence of 
slavery. Even brutes are far more easily coaxed than 
driven. Dogs and horses that are kindly treated readily 
obey us, through affection more than fear. Now select 
the verbs in what I sa} 7 , and tell what mood each one 
of them is in. 

I throw this ball upon the floor. Tt bounds and rolls 
across the room, because it is elastic. 



160 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

M. All these verbs are in the indicative mood : throw, 
bounds, and rolls, indicate the actual occurrence of ac- 
tions; and is indicates the real existence of a fact, 
which you affirm unconditionally. 

The ink-stand does not bound, because it is not elastic. 

P. Does bound modified by not, negatively, indicates 
the actual occurrence of an action ; and is modified by 
not, negatively indicates the real existence of a fact : 
the actual occurrence of an action, and the real exist- 
ence of a fact are unconditionally denied. These verbs 
are therefore in the indicative mood. 

Is this ball elastic ? Does it bound ? 

B. Is indicates interrogatively the real existence of 
a fact ; and does bound, the actual occurrence of an ac- 
tion. They are, therefore, in the indicative mood. 

Throw the ball to me. Be careful. If you throw it 
carelessly, it may bound against the window and break 
it. To throw a ball accurately you must be a skillful 
player. 

L. Throw is in the imperative mood ; denoting a 
command or request ; and so is be: neither of them 
represents an action or event as actually occurring, 
or a fact as really existing ; but as commanded or re- 
quested. If you throw it carelessly — Here throw is 
in the subjunctive mood : the thought which it expresses 
is subjoined to other thoughts, (expressed by may bound 
and break,) as a condition or a supposition ; and the ac- 
tion or event is represented, not as actually occurring, 
but as doubtful, hypothetical, or contingent, 

8. May bound 1 and break are in the potential mood ; 
denoting possibility : they represent the actions or events 
as possible, not as actually occurring. To throw is in 
the infinitive mood : it expresses a thought in a general 
and unlimited manner. Must be is in the potential 
mood ; it denotes the necessity of a fact, and not its real 
existence. 

Dr. S. John, go into the garden and get us some 
peaches. 

J. I cannot reach them, unless I climb the tree. I 
tried to get some yesterday ; but I could not get any. 



VARIATIONS OF VERBS. 161 

H. If I had been there I would have climbed the 
tree. 

Dr. S. If you shake the tree, the ripe ones will fall 
off. You may find some on the ground : I saw one fall 
just now. 

J. Must I shake the tree or climb it ? 

Dr. jS. I don't care whether you shake it or climb it. 
But if you do climb it, be careful, lest you fall and 
break your limbs. Select the verbs in what we have 
just said, and tell what moods they are in; and then 
distinguish the moods of the verbs in the following 
sentences, and in the fifth, sixth, and seventh chapters 
of St. Matthew : 

When you have nothing to say, say nothing. 

If you buy what you do not need, you may soon need what 
you cannot buy. 

Though I bestow all my goods to feed the poor, and though . 
I give my body to be burned, and have not charity, it profit- 
eth me nothing. 

Charity never faileth : but whether there be prophesies, 
they shall fail ; whether there be tongues, they shall cease ; 
whether there be knowledge, it shall vanish away, 

Did sweeter sounds adorn my flowing tongue, 
Than ever man pronounced or angel sung, 
Had I all knowledge, human and divine, 
That thought can reach, or science can define ; 
And had I power to give that knowledge birth, 
In all the speeches of the babbling earth ; 
Did Shadrach's zeal my glowing breast inspire, 
To weary tortures, and rejoice in fire ; 
Or had I faith like that which Israel saw, 
When Moses gave them miracles and law : 
Yet gracious Charity, indulgent guest, 
Were not thy power exerted in my breast, 
Those speeches would send up unheeded prayer ; 
That scorn of life would be but wild despair ; 
A cymbal's sound were better than my voice, 
My faith were form, my eloquence were noise. 

Tense is a certain variation of a verb to denote 
time. 

There are three grand divisions of time; the present, 
the past, and the future. The present is the time of 
11 



162 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

■speaking or writing. It is the central point of observa- 
tion, from which we look back on the past, and forward 
"$o the future. Though every action and event that 
<eomes to pass is present to the observer, yet the thought 
originating from it is treasured in the memory, and 
glances back to its occurrence after it is past. Just 
so our thoughts anticipate what will occur hereafter. 
Every action and event that we contemplate, is regarded 
as progressing at the present time, or within a definite 
or indefinite period of past or future time, or as having 
been perfected or completely finished at the present 
time, or at some particular point of past or future time. 
We therefore have six tenses : the present, the past, and 
the future ; the perfect, the past-perfect, and the future- 
perfect. 

The present tense denotes a fact that now exists, or 
an action or event that is now taking place : as, It is 
spring. The birds sing. 

The past tense denotes what did exist or take place 
within a period of time now entirely past : as, " Cicero 
was coins^l when he delivered his orations against Cata- 
aline." 

The future tense denotes what will exist or take place 
in future time : as, " We shall be like him : for we shall 
see him as he is." 

The perfect tense denotes what has been completed 
at the present time: as, "I have been young." "I 
have finished my course.!' 

The past-perfect tense denotes what had been com- 
pleted at a certain point of past time : as, I had been at 
school an hour and had learned^ my lesson when he ar- 
rived. 

The future-perfect tense denotes what will be com- 
pleted at or before a certain point of future time : as, I 
shall have been here three weeks to-morrow. " Then 
cometh the end, when he shall have delivered up the 
kingdom to God." 

Strictly speaking, these definitions are applicable only 
to the tenses of the indicative mood. In the potential 
mood the present tense denotes what may, can, or must 



. VARIATIONS OF VERBS. 163 

exist or take place : it expresses present possibility or 
liberty, power or necessity, with respect to the pres- 
ent or future existence of a fact, or the present or future 
occurrence of an action or event. The past tense denotes 
what might, could, would, or should exist or take place : 
it expresses past possibility or liberty, power, will, or ob- 
ligation, with respect to the present, past, or future 
existence of a fact, or the present, past, or future occur- 
rence of an action or event. The perfect tense denotes 
what may, can, or must have existed or taken place. 
The past-perfect tense denotes what might, could, would, 
or should have existed or taken place. 

P. P. Why don't you make your definitions of the 
tenses applicable to all the moods ? 

Dr. S. Because it is extremely difficult to do so with- 
out making them obscure. Like distant views of 
landscapes, general definitions, though more compre- 
hensive than specific ones, are less explicit. You may- 
use the following definitions, if you like them better: 

The present tense denotes present time. 

The past tense denotes past time. 

The future tense denotes future time. 

The perfect tense denotes the completion of a 
period of time terminating at the present moment. 

The past-perfect tense denotes the completion. 
of a period of time terminating at a certain point 
of past time. 

The future-perfect tense denotes the completion 
of a period of time terminating at a certain point 
of future time. 

Distinguish the tenses of the verbs in these sentences : 

The birds sing, they sung yesterday, they will sing 

to-morrow ; they have sung ever since we came here, 

they had sung an hour when the sun rose, at ten o'clock 

they will have sung five hours continually. 

If. Sing is in the present tense, because it denotes 
present time ; sung, came, and rose, are in the past tense, 



164 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

because they denote past time ; will sing is in the future 
tense, because it denotes future time ; have sung is in 
the perfect tense, because it denotes the completion of 
a period of time terminating at the present moment ; 
had sung is in the past-perfect tense, because it denotes 
the completion of a period of time terminating at a 
certain point of past time ; and will have sung is in the 
future-perfect tense, because it denotes the completion 
of a period of time terminating at a certain point of 
future time. 

P. P. Do not the perfect tenses denote the completion 
of facts or of actions and events, as well as the comple- 
tion of periods of time ? 

Dr. S. Generally, but not always: have sung, had 
sung, and will have sung, denote the completion of dif- 
ferent periods of time, but not the completion of facts, 
or of actions or events. The singing of the birds is not 
completed ; it continues yet, and probably will continue 
all day long. 

P. Why do we have three perfect tenses ? 

Dr. S. To denote the present, the past, and the future 
completion of different periods of time. 

P. P. Then why not call the first the present perfect? 

Dr. S. Why, my dear sir, that would be supereroga- 
tion. Our tenses all depend upon the present, and are 
named accordingly. We might as well say the present 
past and the present future as the present perfect, 

P. P. The present perfect tense denotes what is en- 
tirely finished at the present time. Hence it derives its 
name. g 

Dr. S. So does the past tense denote what is entirely 
past at the present time, and the future tense denotes 
what now is future. What we speak of as present to- 
day was future yesterday, and will be past to-morrow. 
As the time of speaking is the central point, from which 
we view the ever-flowing current of events, so if we 
shift this point of view, and place it further up or down 
the stream of time, our observations must be relatively 
affected. What was future to the ancients now is past, 
and what is future now, to after ages will be past or 



VARIATIONS OF VEEES. 165 

present. Time has been divided into centuries, years, 
months, weeks, days, hours, minutes, and seconds ; each 
of which may be regarded as a present, past, or future 
period : but in forming tenses we divide it into name- 
less little portions. Every day, and hour, and minute 
has its present, past, and future. What I do now was 
future but an instant ago, and in the twinkling of an 
eye it will be past. Sometimes the present, past, and 
future are contained in less than half a minute : as, I 
will shake this tree. Look ! see the peaches fall. I 
shook off half a dozen. The present is the ' smallest 
part of time imaginable, aptly termed the space be- 
tween two thoughts. It is a passing moment, constantly 
eluding the insatiable past, and treading on the heels of 
the ever fleeting future, and though swallowed up by the 
all-devouring past, and perishing continually, yet rising 
every instant from its ashes, Phoenix-like, it lives for- 
ever one eternal now. The present fleeting moment is 
the radiating point of thought and action, in which all 
our knowledge is acquired, and all our work is done, 
and around which the innumerable series of years 
eternally revolve. It is all the time we have : the past 
is gone forever, and the future we can never overtake. 
On what a little speck of time hang everlasting desti- 
nies ! — Distinguish the moods and tenses of the verbs 
in these sentences, and in 1 Corinthians, Chapter 15. 

Seize mortals ! seize the transient hour ; 

Improve each moment as it flies : 
Life's a short summer — man a flower : 

He dies — Alas ! — how soon he dies ! 

"I will not let thee go, except thou bless me." 

Thus saying, wrestle with each winged hour; 
Hold fast, though pleasure's wanton train caress thee, 

This is the angel that can give thee power 
To conquer, though he seems a child of air. 

Without a blessing .never let him go, 
And then a crown of glory thou Shalt wear: 

The victor's crown on them that hold him he'll bestow. 

How have men compassed immortal achievements ? 

How have they molded the world to their will ? 
'lis that, midst dangers, and woes, and bereavements, 

"Never give up," was their principle still. 



166 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

J?. Does the present tense of the indicative mood al- 
ways represent a fact as really existing, or an action or 
event as actually taking place at the present time ? 

Dr. S. No, it often expresses a relative fact, a gen- 
eral truth, what is habitual or customary, or an action or 
event occurring with occasional intermissions : as, He 
is kind when he is sober. They are here quite often. 
He preaches twice a week. "The sun rises in the 
morning, and the trees blossom in the spring." " When 
the earth is dark with tempests ; when thunders roll 
and lightnings fly ; thou lookest in thy beauty from the 
sky, and laughest at the storm." " One generation pass- 
eth and another coxneth." 

Another race the following spring supplies ; 
They fall successive, and successive rise. 

This tense is sometimes substituted for the past tense, 
representing past actions or events as if they were pres- 
ent and actually taking place before our eyes : as, 

" They tug, they strain ; — down, down they go, 
The Gael above Fitz-James below." 

This tense preceded by when, before, after, till, or as 
soon as, is often used to express a future action or event : 
as, "I will go and see him before I die'' 1 The perfect 
tense is sometimes substituted for the future -perfect: 
as, " When you have read these books, I will send you 
the others." The present, past, and future tenses, may 
be used either definitely or indefinitely, with respect to 
time and action. When they denote customs or habits, 
and not individual acts, they are applied indefinitely: 
as, " He feeds the hungry, clothes the naked, visits the 
forsaken, and attends to the neglected." "The old Eo- 
mans governed by benefits more than by fear." "I 
shall hereafter employ my time more usefully." These 
verbs are not confined to individual actions, nor to any 
precise points of present, past, or future time. But 
when particular individual actions are expressed, and 
the precise points of time are specified, the tenses are 
used definitely : as, John is walking in the garden. I 
wrote a letter yesterday. I will write to-morrow. 



VARIATIONS OP VERBS. 167 

R. Are walking and writing individual actions ? Is 
not every step we take an action ? and every movement 
of the fingers ? 

Dr. S. At every step you take, three actions are per- 
formed ; your foot is raised, moved forward, and set down. 
Strictly speaking, these verbs express continual repeti- 
tions of the same actions, or, to speak more philosophi- 
cally, the thoughts arising from our observation of therm- 
Some verbs denote continuous actions, not their repeti- 
tion : as, " The sun enlightens, warms, and vivifies the 
solar system. He attracts and holds the planets in their 
orbits, as they move around him ?" To ascertain these 
general truths, how many observations on the various- 
operations and phenomena of nature have been made I 
A general truth consists of several specific facts, con- 
densed into a single comprehensive thought : as, Vege- 
tables, grow, and live. Animals grow, live, and feel. 
Birds fly. Fish swim. Beasts walk. Eeptiles crawl. 
Men think and talk. We first receive impressions of 
particular actions and events as they occur around us. 
These we treasure in the memory, where reflection classi- 
fies, combines, and modifies them into complex thoughts, 
each embodying the impressions made by many individ- 
ual actions or events. In early childhood we begin to 
generalize our thoughts, by observation and reflection, 
and to express them in general terms : as, Dogs bite, and 
cats scratch. How many individual acts of biting 
and scratching we must see in this, that, and the other 
dog and cat, before we have such general thoughts ! un- 
less we jump at our conclusions, with no regular process 
of induction, like the traveler who, as he passed through 
a certain city, and saw a woman scolding furiously at a 
red-headed man, wrote in his diary, "In this city 
the men have red hair, and the women are terrible 
scolds." It would be equally absurd to judge the char- 
acter or nature of a man or beast, or anything else, 
from a single action ; much more, to judge a whole race 
or species. Generalization of thought requires much 
careful observation and reflection, and above all, a 
sound unbiased judgment. Many individual actions, 



168 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

uniformly consistent, -are condensed into a general 
thought, ascribing to its subject a permanent attribute : 
as, Is he honest ? I think he is ; for he has always 
dealt honestly with everybody. He is very benevolent : 
lie spends fifteen or twenty thousand dollars every year 
in acts of disinterested benevolence, as far as I can 
judge. 

M. Are participles a distinct part of speech ? 

Dr. S. No. They are variations of the verb, very 
near allied to the infinitive mood : they have, by some 
grammarians, been called the participial mood. 

A participle is a variation of a verb expressing 
a concurrent or collateral thought. 

There are three participles, the present, the 
perfect, and the past-perfect. 

The present participle denotes an unfinished ac- 
tion or event. 

The perfect participle denotes a finished action 
or event. 

The past-perfect participle denotes the comple- 
tion of an action or event before a specified point 
of time. 

A participle, like an infinitive, expresses a concur- 
rent or collateral thought, uniting with that expressed 
by the verb on which it depends without a connective : 
as, "Looking out to sea, I saw a ship sailing very fast." 
"He came home broken down with hardships." "Hav- 
ing done their duty they received their reward." " Uni- 
ted, we stand; divided we fall." "I see the heavens 
opened, and the Son of man standing on the right hand 
of God." 

" How would you bear in real pain to lie, 
1, neglected, fc/? alone to die?" 



In some of the moods and tenses verbs are varied to 
agree with their subjects : as, I am, thou art, he is; we 
are, you are, they are. This variation is called number 



CONJUGATIONS OF VERBS. 169 

and person. Verbs have two numbers ; the singular, and 
the plural : and three persons ; the first, the second, and 
the third. 

Can you mention all the variations of verbs ? 

M. Voices, moods, tenses, participles, numbers, and 
persons. 

/S. Does every verb have all these variations ? 

Dr. S. Intransitive verbs have no voices. Infinitives 
and participles have no numbers nor persons. This 
you will understand when you have learned the conju- 
gation of verbs. 

J. What does conjugation mean? 

Dr. S. The conjugation of a verb is a regular ar- 
rangement of all its variations. 

Would you like to see the conjugation of the irreg- 
ular intransitive verb to be? Look! here it is, spread 
out before you like a map, with all its variations regu- 
larly arranged: 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 





PRESENT 


TENSE. 


Singular. 

1 pers. I am, 

2 pers. Thou art, 

3 pers. He is. 




Plural. 

1 pers. We are, 

2 pers. Vou are. 

3 pers. They are. 




PAST TENSE. 


Singular. 

1. I was, 

2. Thou wast, • 

3. He was. 




Plural. 

1. We were, 

2. You were, 

3. They were. 




FUTURE 


TENSE. 


Singular. 

1. I shall or will be, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt be, 

3. He shall or will be. 


Plural. 

1. We shall or wjll be, 

2. You shall or will be, 

3. They shall or will be. 




PERFECT 


TENSE. 


Singular. 

1. I have been, 

2. Thou hast been, 

3. He has been. 




Plural. 

1. We have been, 

2. You have been, 

3. They have been. 



170 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



PAST-PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I had been, 1. We had been, 

2. Thou hadst been, 2. You had been, 

3. He had been. 3. They had been. 

FUTURE-PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plmral. 

1. I shall have been, 1. We shall have been, 

2. Thou wilt have been, 2. You will have been, 

3. He will have been. 3. They will have been. 



POTENTIAL MOOD. 



PRESENT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may be, ] . We may be, 

2. Thou mayst be, 2. You may be, 

3. He may be. 3. They may be. 

PAST TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might be, 1. We might be, 

2. Thou mightst be, 2. You might be, 

3. He might be. 3. They might be. 

PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plura\ 

1. I may have been, 1. We may have been, 

2. Thou mayst have been, 2. You may have been, 

3. He may have been. 3. They may have been. 

PAST-PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might have been, 1. We might have been, 

2. Thou mightst have been. 2. You might have been, 

3. He might have been. 3. They might have been. 

In the present and the perfect tense of this mood, 
can and must are often used, and could, would, and 
should, in the other tenses : as, I can be, I must be ; I 
can have been, I must have been ; I could be, I would 
be, I should be ; I could have been, I would have been, 
I should have been. Thou canst be, &c. 



CONJUGATIONS OF VERBS. 171 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I be, 1. If we be, 

2. If thou be, 2. If you be, 

3. If he be. 3. If they be. 

As this tense denotes future time with shall or should 
understood, it may, with strict propriety, be called the 
elliptical future. 

PAST TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I were, 1. If we were, 

2. If thou wert, 2. If you were, 

3. If he were. 3. If they were. 

This is a sort of indefinite tense ; like the Greek 
aorist, denoting present, past, or future time. The 
same may be said of the past tense of the potential 
mood. The other tenses of the subjunctive mood are 
similar in form to the corresponding tenses of the in- 
dicative, except the future-perfect, which requires shall 
instead of will in the second and third persons. Now 
repeat these tenses of the indicative mood with if pre- 
fixed ; and you will put them into the subjunctive. If 
you use lest, except, unless, or whether, it will have the 
same effect. Though is used before the indicative as 
well as the subjunctive. The potential mood may like- 
wise be converted into the subjunctive : as If I may be, 
If thou mayst be, If I might be, &c. 

IMPEKATIVE MOOD. 

Singular. Plural. 

2. Be thou or do thou be. 2. Be ye or you or do ye be. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense, To be. Perfect Tense, To have been. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present. Perfect. Past-Perfect. 

Being. Been. Having been. 



172 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Here is the conjugation of the regular transitive verb 
to love, presenting all its variations. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 





PRESENT TENSE. 


Singular. 

1. I lore, 

2. Thoulovest, 

3. He loves. 


Plural. 

1. We love, 

2. You love, 

3. They love. 




PAST TENSE. 


Singular. 

1. I loved, 

2. Thou lovedst, 

3. He loved. 


Plural. 

1. We loved, 

2. You loved, 

3. They loved. 



FUTURE TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will love. 1. We shall or will love, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt love, 2. You shall or will love. 

3. He shall or will love. 3. They shall or will love. 

PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I have loved, 1. We have loved, 

2. Thou hast loved, 2. You have loved, 

3. He has loved. 3. They have loved. 



PAST-PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I had loved, 1. We had loved, 

2. Thou hadst loved, 2. You had loved, 

3. He had loved. 3. They had loved. 

FUTURE-PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have loved, 1. We shall have loved, 

2. Thou wilt have loved, 2. You will have loved, 

3. He will have loved. 3. They will have loved. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may love, 1. We may love, 

2. Thou mayst love, 2. You may love, 

3. He may love. 3. They may love. 



CONJUGATIONS OF VERBS. 173 

PAST TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might love, 1. We might love, 

2. Thou mightst love, 2. You might love, 

3. He might love. 3. They might love. 

PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may have loved, 1. We may have loved, 

2. Thou mayst have loved, 2. You may have loved, 

3. Ee may have loved. 3. They may have loved. 

PAST-PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might have loved, 1. We might have loved, 

2. Thou mightst have loved, 2. You might have loved. 

3. He might have loved. 3. They might have loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I love, 1. If we love, 

2. If thou love, 2. If you love, 

3. If he love. 3. If they love. 

The other tenses have the same form as, in the indic- 
ative mood, except the future-perfect. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Singular. Plural. 

2. Love thou or do thou love. 2. Love ye or you or do ye love. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present lense, To love. Perfect Tense, To have loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present. Perfect. Past-perfect. 

Loving. Loved. Having loved. 

PASSIVE VOICE. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I am loved, 1. We are loved, 

2. Thou art loved, 2. You are loved, 

3. He is loved. 3. They are loved. 



174 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

PAST TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I was loved, 1. We were loved, 

2. Thou wast loved, 2. You were loved, 

3. He was loved. 3. They were loved. 

FUTURE TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will be loved, 1. We shall or will be loved, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt be loved, 2. You shall or will be loved, 

3. He shall or will be loved. 3. They shall or will be loved. 

PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I have been loved. ■ 1. We have been loved, 

2. Thou hast been loved, 2. You have beeu loved, 

3. He has been loved. 3. They have been loved. 

PAST-PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I had been loved, 1. We had been loved, 

2. Thou hadst been loved, 2. You had been loved, 

3. He had been loved, 3. They had been loved. 

FUTURE-PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have been loved, 1. We shall have been loved, 

2. Thou wilt have been loved, 2. You will have been loved, 

3. He will have been loved. 3. They will have been loved. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may be loved, 1. We may be loved, 

2. Thou mayst be loved, 2. You may be loved, 

3. He may be loved. 3. They may be loved. 

PAST TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might be loved, 1. We might be loved, 

2. Thou mightst be loved, 2. You might be loved, 

3. He might be loved. 3. They might be loved. 

PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may have been loved, 1. We may have been loyed, 

2. Thou mavst have been loved, 2. You may have been loved, 
8. He may have been loved. 3. They may have been loved. 



CONJUATIONS OF VERBS. 



175 



PAST-PERFECT TENSE. 



Singular. 

1. I might have been loved, 

2. Thou mightst have been loved. 

3. He might have been loved. 



Plural. 

1. We might have been loved, 

2. You might have been loved, 

3. They might have been loved. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 



Singular. 

1. If I be loved, 

2. If thou be loved, 

3. If he be loved. 



Singular. 

1. If I were loved, 

2. If thou wert loved, 

3. If he were loved. 



Plural. 

1. If we be loved, 

2. It you be loved, 

3. If they be loved. 

PAST TENSE. 

Plural. 

1. If we were loved, 

2. If you were loved, 

3. If they were loved. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Singular. Plural. 

2. Be thou loved or do thou be loved. 2. Be ye or you loved or do ye be 

loved. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense, To be loved. Perfect Tense, To have been loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present Perfect. Past-Perfect. 

Being loved. Loved. Haviug been loved. 

Compare this with the conjugation of the irregular 
transitive verb to know. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 



Singular. 

1. I know, 

2. Thou knowest, 

3. He knows. 



Singular. 

1. I knew, 

2. Thou knewest, 

3. He knew. 



PRESENT TENSE. 

Plural. 

1. We know, 

2. You know 

3. They know. 

PAST TENSE. 

Plural. 

1. We knew, 

2. You knew, 

3. They knew. 



176 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

FUTURE TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I stall or will know, 1. We shall or will know, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt know, 2. You shall or will know, 

3. He shall or will know. 8. Tbey shall or will know. 

PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I have known, 1. We have known, 

2. Thou hast known, 2. You have knowD, 

3. He has known. 3. They have known. 

PAST-PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I had known, 1. We had known, 

2. Thou hadst known, 2. You had known, 

3. He had known. 3. They had known. 

FUTURE-PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have known, 1. We shall have known, 

2. Thou wilt have known, 2. You will have known, 

3. He will have known. 3. They will have known. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I can know, 1. We can know, 

2. Thou canst know, 2. You can know, 

3. He can koow. 3. They can know. 

PAST TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I could know, 1. We could know, 

2. Thou couldst know, 2. You could know, 

3. He could know. 3. They could know. 

PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I can* have known, 1. You can have known, 

2. Thou canst have known, 2. We can have known, 
3.„ He can have kuown. 3. They can have known. 

PAST-PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I could have known, 1. We could have known, 

2. Thou couldst have known, 2. You could have known, 

3. He could have known. 3. They could have known. 

• Can is Je'.dom used in thli tenee. 



CONJUGATIONS OF VERBS. 177 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I know, ]. If we know, 

2. If thou know, 2. If you know, 

3. If he know. 3. If they know. 

Place if before the pronouns, I, thou, he, we, you and 
they, in any of the tenses of the indicative or potential 
mood ; and yon will put the verb into the subjunctive. 

R. Let me try it, and see. 







PAST 


TENSE. 


1. 

2. 
3. 


Singular. 
If I knew, 
If thou knewest, 
If he knew. 




Plural. 

1. If we knew, 

2. If you knew, 

3. If they knew. 






FUTURE 


TENSE. 



Singular. Plural. 

1. If I shall or will know, 1. If we shall or will kDow, 

2. If thou shalt or wilt know, 2. If you shall or will know, 
8. If he shall or will know. 3. If they shall or will know. 

PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Pluial. 

1. If I have known, 1. If we have known, 

2. If thou hast known, 2. If you have known, 

3. If he has known. 3. If they have known. 

PAST-PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I had known, 1. If we had known, 

2. If thou hadst known, 2. II you had known, 

3. If he had known. 3. If they had known. 

FUTURE-PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I shall have known, 1. If we shall have known, 

2. If thou ehalt have known, 2. If you shall have known, 

3. If he shall have known. 3. If they shall have known. 

Dr. S. Now see if you can change the potentential 
mood into the subjunctive. 

JR. Very well, sir. I can do it if it can be done. 

12 



178 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

PRESENT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I can know, 1. If we can know, 

2. If thou canst know, 2. If you can know, 

3. If he can know. 3. If they can know. 

PAST TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I could know, 1. If we could know, 

2. Il thou couldst know, 2. If you could know, 

3. If be could know. 3. If they coulJ know, 

Dr. S. That will do at present, Robert ; you can 
change the other tenses at your leisure. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Singular. Plural. 

2. Know thou, or do thou know. 2. Know ye or you, or do you know. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense, To know. Perfect Tense, To have known. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present. Perfect. Past-Perfect. 

Knowing. Known. Having Known. 

PASSIVE VOICE. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I am known, 1. We are known, 

2. Thou art known, 2. You are kuown, 

3. fle is known. 3. They are known. 

PAST TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I was known, 1. We were known, 

2. Thou wast known, 2. You were known, 

3. He was known. 3. They were known. 

FUTURE TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will be known, 1. We shall or wilt be known. 

2 Tnou shall or wilt be known, 2. lou shall or will be known, 

3. He shall or will be known. 3. They shall or will be known. 



CONJUGATIONS OF VERBS. 179 



PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I have LeeL known, 1. Webave been known, 

2. Thou hast been known, 2. You have been kDown, 

3. He has been known. 3. They have been known. 

PAST-PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I had been kuown, 1. We had been knowD, 

2. Thou had.-<t been known, 2. You had been known, 

3. He had been knowD. 3. Tbev had been known. 

FUTURE-PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have been known, 1. We shall have been known, 

2. Thou wilt have been kuown, 2. You will have been known, 

3. fie will have been known. 3. They will have been known. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I can be known, 1. We can be known, 

2. Thou canst be known, 2. You can be known, 

3. He can be known. 3. They can be known. 

PAST TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I could be known, . 1. We could be k-iown, 

2. Thou couldstbe known, 2. You could be known, 

3. He could be known. 3. They could be known. 

PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I can have bi en known. 1. We can have been known, 

2. Thou cms' have been known, 2. You can have been known, 

3. He can have been known. 3. Th j y can have been - known. 

PAST-PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I could have been known, 1. We could have been known, 

2. Thou couldst have been known, 2. You could have been known, 

3. fie could have beeu known, 3. They could have been known. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I be known. 1. If we be known, 

2. l e thou be known, 2. If you be kuown, 

3. If he been known. 3. It ihey be known. 



180 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

PAST TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I were known, 1. If we were known, 

2. If thou wert known, 2. If vou were known, 

3. If he were k'^own. 3. If they were known. 

IMPEKATIVE MOOD. 

Singular. Plural. 

2. Be thou known, or do thou be 2. Be ye or you knowD, or do ye be 
known. known. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense, To be known. Perfect Tense, To have been known. 

PAKTICIPLES. 

Present. Perfect. Past- Perfect. 

Being known. Known. Earing been known. 

Compare the variations of these two verbs carefully, 
and see wherein they differ. Take particular notice 
of every mood and tense. 

P. In the conjugation of the first, we use love or 
loved in every mood and tense ; and in the conjugation 
of the other, we use know, knew, or known, in every 
mood and tense. 

Dr. S. Know is the present ; and knew, the past tense 
of the indicative mood ; and known, the perfect partici- 
ple. The past tense and perfect participle of every 
regular verb have the same form. The present and 
the past tense, and the perfect participle, are called the 
principal parts of a verb ; because they are essential 
to every mood and tense. A verb that lacks any of 
these parts can not be conjugated through all the moods 
and tenses, and is therefore called defective. A princi- 
pal verb is one that is complete in all its parts, and can 
be conjugated, with the help of auxiliaries, through all 
the moods and tenses. The past tense and perfect 
participle are but variations of the principal verb, and 
the present tense is its root. Some eminent gramma- 
rians call the imperative mood of every verb its root 
Look at the conjugation of to knoiu again, and see how 
frequently the perfect participle known is used. 

R. In the active voice known is used in the perfect, 
the past-perfect, and the future-perfect tense of the in- 



CONJUGATIONS OF VERBS. 181 

dicative and subjunctive moods, and in the perfect and 
the past-perfect of the potential, and the perfect of the 
infinitive. In the passive voice it is used in all the 
moods and tenses. 

Dr. S. Omit the participle in the passive voice, and 
what do you have left ? 

R. The verb to he and nothing else. 

Dr, S. Is not the participle then a very essential part 
of the verb ? and not a separate part of speech ? 

I. Mr. Puzzle calls it a separate part of speech. 

P. P. Your argument is so conclusive that I stand 
corrected. It consists of stubborn facts that will not 
yield to theory. 

Dr. S. It is good for us to be corrected ; for it makes 
us wiser than we were before. A wise man very 
often changes his opinions. He is always ready to 
renounce his errors, and receive instruction. But the 
fool never changes his opinions or acknowledges his 
errors ; and, if once wrong, he must be alwaj^s so, be- 
cause he thinks it is impossible for him to err. The less 
he knows, the greater is his self-conceit. The strongest 
proofs have no more effect upon him than the weakest, 
as a feather and a guinea fall with equal velocity in a 
vacuum. His own reason he believes to be the certain 
measure of truth ; his own knowledge, of what is pos- 
sible in nature. Look at every mood and tense again, 
and see what words besides love and loved, know, knew, 
and known are used in conjugating these verbs. 

S. In the indicative and subjunctive moods, shall and 
shalt, will and wilt, are used in the future tense ; have, 
hast, and has, in the perfect ; had and hadst, in the past- 
perfect ; and shall have, shalt have, will have, and wilt 
have, in the future-perfect. In the potential mood, may, 
and mayst, can and canst are used in the present tense ; 
might and mightst, coidd and couldst, in the past ; may 
have and mayst have, can have and canst have, in the per- 
fect ; might have and mightst have, could have and couldst 
have, in the past-perfect. 

Dr. S. These little words are called auxiliary or 
helping verbs, because they help conj ugatc the princi- 



182 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

pal verbs. Remember how we use them in the conju- 
gation of these two verbs ; and you will have but little 
difficulty in distinguishing the moods and tenses of all 
our verbs. 

L. In the potential mood, is not must sometimes used 
in the present tense, should and would in the past, must 
have in the perfect, and would have and should have in 
the past-perfect ? 

Dr. S. Yes, frequently; as in this conjugation of the 
verb to have. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense, I have. 

Past Tense, I hid. 

Future Tense, I shall or will have. 

Perfect Tense, I have had. 

Past-perfect Tense, I had had. 

Future-perfect Tense, I shall have had. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present Tense, I may, csn, or must have. 

Past Tense, I m'ght, could, would, or should have. 

Perfect Tense, I may, caD, or must nave had. 

Past-perfect Tense, I might, could, would, or should have had. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense, If I have. 

Past, If I had. 

Future, If I shall or will have. 

Perfect, If I have had. 

Past-perfect, If I had had. 

Futureperfect, If I shall have had. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Have thou, or do thou have. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present, To have. Perfect, To have had. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present. Perfect. Past-perfect. 

Having. Had. Having had. 



CONJUGATIONS OF YEEBS. 183 

I "have here presented you a synopsis of the moods 
and tenses of this verb in the active voice, without ex- 
hibiting its variations in number and person. 

P. Can have be conjugated in the passive voice ? 

Dr. S. Certainly. But it is not so often used in the 
passive voice as in the active. Take the perfect parti- 
ciple had, and add it to the verb to be through all its 
variations, and see for yourself. Now conj ugate see in. 
the second person, singular. 

M. Present Tense, See. Past, Saw. Pref. Part., Seen, 

ACTIVE VOICE. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense, Thou seest. 

Past, Thou sawest. 

Future, Thou shalt or wilt see. 

Perfect, Thou hast seen. 

Past-perfect, Tbou hadst seen. • 

Future-perfect, Thou wilt have seen. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present, Thou tnayst, canst, or must see. 

Past, Tbou noigbtst, couldst, wouldsf, or shouldst see. 

Perfect, Thoumaysf, canst, or must have seen. 

Past-perfect, Thou mig'at3(, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst have seen. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present, If thou see. 

Past, It' thou sawest. 

Future, If ihou shalt or wilt see. 

Perfect, If thou bast seen. 

Past-perfect, If thou bads', seen. 

Future perfect, If thou shalt have seen. 

IMPEEATIVE MOOD. 

See thou, or do thou see. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present, To see. Perfect, To have seen. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present. Perfect. Past-perfect. 

Seeing. Seen. Having seep. 



184 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



PASSIVE VOICE. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present, Thou art seen. 

Past, Thou wast seen. 

Future, Thou shalt or will be seen. 

Perfect, Thou hast been seen. 

Past-perfect, Thou had?t been seen. 

Future-perfect, Thou wilt have been seen. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present, Thou mavst, canst, or must be seen. 
Past. Thou mightst, couldst, would^t, or shouldst be seeu. 
Perfect, Thou mayst, canst, or must have been seen. 
Past-perfect, Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst have been 
seen. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present, If thou be seen. 

Past, If thou wert seen. 

Future, If thou shalt or wilt be seen. 

Perfect, If thou hast been seen. 

Past-perfect, If thou hadst been seen. 

Future-perfect, If thou shalt have been seen. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Be thou seen, or do thou be seen. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present, To be seen. Perfect, To have been seen. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present. Perfect. Pastperfecl. 

Being seen. Seen. Having been seen. 

R. In speaking or writing, do we use the pronoun 
thou, ye, or you, as the subject of a verb in the impera- 
tive mood? 

Br. S. Very seldom. Bnt it is implied. You may 
omit it, if you choose, in conjugating verbs, and use 
them in the imperative mood just as we speak or write 
them. Conjugate the irregular intransitive verb go. 

B. Let me abbreviate the synopsis of the moods and 
tenses. 

Indie. He goes, he went, he will go, he has gone, he had gone, he 
will have gone. Poten. He may go, he might go, he may have gone, 



CONJUGATIONS OF VERBS. 185 

he might haye gone. Subj. If he go, if be -went, if he shall go, if he 
has gone, if be h id gone, if he shall have gone. Imper. Go. In/in. 
To go, to have gone. Part. Going, gone, haying gone. 

PASSIVE FORM. 

Ind. He is gone, he was gone, be will be gone, he has bee 1 gone, he 
had been gone, be will have been gene. Pot. lie nay be gone, he 
might be gone, he may have been gone, he might have been gone. Subj. 
If he be gone, if he were goae, if ue shall be gone, if he has beea gone, 
if he had been gone, if he shallUave been gone. Imper. Be gon' 1 . Inf. 
To be gone, to have been gone. Part. Being gone, gone, bavh'g been gone. 

W, Can intransitive verbs be conjugated in the pas- 
sive voice ? 

•* Dr. S. We have a few, like go, that admit the pas- 
sive form without a passive signification. Such verbs, 
though the j have the passive form, are never really in 
the passive voice. Conjugate the irregular intransitive 
verb rise. 

0. I will conjugate it first affirmative, and then nega- 
tively, in the plural number. 

Ind. We rise, we rise, we shall rise, we have risen, we had risen, we 
shall have risen. Pot. We must rise, we should iise, we must, have 
risen, we should have risen. Subj. If we. rise, if we rose, if we shall 
rise, if we have risen, if we had riseD, if we shall have risen ; if we 
must rise, if we should rise, if we must have risen, if we should have 
risen. Imper. Rise. Inf. To rise, to have risen. Part. Rising, risen, 
having risen. 

Ind. We rise not, or we do not rise, we rose not, or we did not rise, 
we shall not rise, we have not risen, we had not risen, we shall not have 
risen. Pot. We must not vise, we should not rise, we must not have 
risen, we hould not have risen. Subj. If we rise not, or do not use, if 
we rose not, or did not rise, if we shall not rise, if we have not risen, if 
we had not risen, &c. Imper. Rise not, or do not rise. Inf. Not to 
rise, not to have risen. Part. Not rising, not risen, not having risep. 

Dr. jS. Conjugate the irregular transitive verb hear 
interrogatively. 

L ACTIVE VOICE. 

Ind. Hear ye? or do you hear? heard ye? or did you bear ? will you 
hear? have youhcaid? had you bend ? will you have hea?d ? Pot. can 
you bear? could you hear? can you have be*rd? could you have beard? 

PASSIVE VOICE. 

Ind. Are you heard? were you heard ? will you be heard? hive you 
been heard? had \ou been beard? will you have been bond? lot. Can 
you be heard? could you be beard? can you have been beard? could 
you have been heard? I can't conjugate it interrogatively any further. 



186 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Dr. S. The best of us can do no better ; no verb can 
be conjugated interrogatively in any other moods. Can 
any of you ask a question with a verb except in one 
of these two moods ? Try it and see. Now conjugate 
the irregular intransitive verb fly interrogatively and 
negatively. 

8. Ind. Do they not flv? did tbey not fly ? will they not fly ? have tbey 
not flown; bad thev not flown? will tbey not have flown? Pot. Can 
tbey not fly ? could they not fly ? can they not have flown ? could they 
not have flown ? 

Dr. S. So you see, a verb can be conj ugated affirma- 
tively, negatively, interrogatively, and interrogatively 
and negatively. Take particular notice of these dif- 
ferent conj ligations, so that you can tell wherein they 
differ. 

P. We conjugate a verb negatively by placing not 
after it, or after the first auxiliary, through all its varia- 
tions, except the infinitive mood and participles; in 
which not is placed before the verb and its auxiliaries. 
We conjugate a verb interrogatively through all the 
tenses of the indicative and potential moods by placing 
its subject after it, or after the first auxiliary ; and in- 
terrogatively and negatively by placing its subject and 
not after it, or after the first auxiliary. 

F. What are the subjects of the verbs that we have 
conjugated? 

P. The pronouns, 7", thou, he, we, ye, you, and they. 

J. Is not an auxiliary ? 

jS. Why, no : it is a negative adverb. 

K. What part of speech is to in the infinitive mood. 

P. P. A preposition used as the sign of the infinitive. 

Dr. S. I consider it an auxiliary used to help us con- 
jugate verbs in the infinitive mood. I now will conju- 
gate the irregular transitive verb write affirmatively in 
the progressive form. 

Ind. He is writing, he was writing, be vill be writing, be has been 
writing, he had been writing, he will have been writing. Pot. He may 
be writing, he m'ght be writing, be may have been writing, be m'ght 
have been writing. Subj If he be writing, if he were writing, if he 
Bhall be writing, it he has been wiiting, if he had been writing, if he 
Bball have been wriiing. Imper. Be writing. Inf To be writing, to 
have been writing. Part. Being writing, having been wiiting. 



CONJUGATIONS OF VERBS. 187 

L. Can a verb be conjugated negatively in the pro- 
gressive form? and interrogatively? 

Dr. S. Certainty, and also interrogatively and nega- 
tively: as, He is not writing. Is he writing? Is he 
not writing ? At your leisure conjugate it thus through 
all the moods and tenses if you can. 

J. We can conjugate it negatively through all the 
moods and tenses, but interrogatively only in the in- 
dicative and potential. 

I. Why do you call this the progressive form ? 

Dr. S. Because it denotes the progression or continu- 
ance of an action. Verbs whose signification imply 
continuance do not admit this form : as, remember, know, 
love, hate. It is applied to such as denote individual 
acts, and not to those that express general truths. 

P. Can a verb in the progressive form be conjugated 
in the passive voice ? 

Dr. S. Not with propriety ; because the progressive 
form requires the present participle added to the verb to 
be through all its variations; and the passive voice, re- 
quires the perfect participle which denotes the comple- 
tion of an action, and of course precludes the idea of 
its continuance. 

P. P. Why should not a verb express the continu- 
ous transition of an action to its subject as well as to 
its object? Are not such expressions as "The house 
is being built," " The goods are being sold,'' " The books 
are being printed," sanctioned by prevailing custom? 

Dr. S. Such ah expression is a gross tautology, con- 
sisting of a duplication of the verb to be in its present 
participle and its present tense. What more does is 
being signify than is? Does it signify continuous exist- 
ence? So does is alone. What more then does "The 
house is being built " mean than " The house is, existing 
built," or "The house exists built," or "The house is 
built." This double construction of the verb to be with 
the perfect participle added, to express unfinished 
action, is a very awkward solecism. If such expres- 
sions are correct in the present tense of the indicative 
mood, why not in any mood or tense. But who can 



188 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

conjugate a verb in this form through all the moods and 
tenses ? 

P. P. I can ; and so can any good grammarian. Ind. The goods are 
being sold, they were being sold, they will be being sold, they have been 
being'sold, they had been being sold, they will have been being sold. 
Pot. They may be being sold, they might be being sold, they may have 
been being sold, they might have been being sold. Subj. If they be 
being sold, if they were being sold. Imper. Be being sold. Inf. To 
be being sold, to have been being sold. Part. Being being sold, been 
being sold, having been being sold. 

Dr. S. O excellent expounder of language ! purifier 
and refiner of our literature ! You add new brilliancy 
to every sparkling gem of thought, and make the 
brightest jewels of the British classics shine with 
double splendor. Polished and refined by you, such 
unassuming literary, gems as " The bells are ringing," 
"The drums are beating," "The heart of the minstrel 
is breaking," sparkle with intolerable light like this ; 
"The bells are being rung," "The drums are being 
beaten," "The heart of the minstrel is being broken." 
Shades of our illustrious orators and poets ! if you 
could have lived till this new sun had risen in oar lit- 
erary firmament, what beautiful orations and poems 
you might have made ! 

M. How can we express the continuance of an action 
passively? 

Dr. S. By using the present participle in a passive 
sense after the verb to be: as, " The house is building,"f 
" The goods are selling." 

0. I don't exactly understand the application of shall 
and will in the future tenses. 

Dr. S. Shall in the first person, and ivill in the second 
and third, simply denote futurity : as, " We shall meet 
again," " You will have a pleasant ride," " lie to ill be here 
to-morrow." But will in the first person denotes the 
will of the speaker with respect to himself, and shall in 
the second and the third denotes his will with respect 
to others : as, " I ivill not excuse you." " You shall not 
be excused," "Excuses shall not be admitted." The 
foreigner who, as it is said, fell into the Thames and 

tSea Bullions' giammar, pages 235, 236, 237. 



VARIATIONS OF VERBS. 189 

cried out, "I will be drowned, nobody shall help me," 
made a sad misapplication of these auxiliaries. In in- 
terrogative sentences will in the second person, and shall 
in the first and the third, refer to the will of the person 
addressed : as, " Will you go ? Shall I go ? Shall he 
go ?" But shall in the second person, and will in the 
first and the third, simply denote future actions or 
events: as, " Shall you go? Will I go? Will he 
go?" In the subjunctive mood shall in all three of the 
persons, simply denotes futurity, and will refers to the 
will of the subject : as, If I shall go, if thou shalt go, if 
he shall go. If I luill go, will you go with me ? If you 
will go, I will go. If they will not work, they shall not 
eat. When will is emphatic, it denotes the will of the 
subject in the second and the third, as well as the first 
person : as, " Why will ye die f" " They ivill not come." 
In declarative sentences, will in the first person, and 
shall in the second and the third, are generally used to 
promise, threaten, or command : as, I will never leave 
you, nor forsake you. He shall surely die. Thou shalt 
not steal. 

P. Are any of the auxiliaries ever used as principal 
verbs ? 

Dr. S. Be, do, have, and will, are frequently used as 
such. They are then varied like other principal verbs, 
and also have auxiliaries: as " Be kind to all." "It 
must be so." "What thou doest, do quickly." "What 
shall I do f" " Altamont had a friend. He might have 
had many." "What wilt thou, queen Esther?" "I 
would thou wert cold or hot." "He has ivilled his whole 
estate to you." Be, through all its variations is used 
as an auxiliary to transitive verbs in the perfect partici- 
ple, to help form the passive voice, and as an auxiliary 
to intransitive verbs in the perfect participle when they 
assume the passive form. It is also used before the 
present participle, to help conjugate verbs in the pro- 
gressive form. Do is used as an auxiliary for the sake 
of emphasis, and in negative and interrogative senten- 
ces: as, "We speak what we do know." " Did you 
hear me ? Why do you not answer V It sometmes 



190 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

supplies the place of another verb, and makes the repe- 
tition of it unnecessary : as, " She behaves better than 
lie does." 

S. Are auxiliaries varied like principal verbs on ac- 
count of number and person? 

Dr. S. Look at the conjugations again, and see for 
yourself. 

S. I see ! I see ! In the present tense, be, do, and have, 
are varied in the singular number thus : I am, thou art, 
he is. I do, thou dost, he does. I have, thou hast, he 
has. But in the plural number they are not varied on 
account of person. None of the other auxiliaries are 
varied, except in the second person singular thus : 
Shall, shalt; will, ivilt ; may, mo.yst ; can, canst; might, 
mightst; could, couldst; would, wouldst ; should, shouldst. 

Dr. S. In the present tense every verb but be has the 
same form in all three of the persons plural as in the 
first person singular; and no verb, but the auxiliary 
have in the perfect tense, is varied in form on account 
of number or person in any of the other moods and 
tenses, except in the second person singular, as you can 
see lor yourselves. 

J. Then how can we tell the number and person of 
a verb ? 

Dr. S. By finding out the number and person of its 
subject. All our verbs depend upon their subjects for 
their number and person, and can not be conjugated 
without the aid of the personal pronouns ; I, thou, he, 
we, you and they. 

P. P. We can conjugate Latin verbs without the aid 
of any pronouns ; because they have a certain variation 
in their form for every number and person ; as, Amo, 
amas, amat, amamus, amatis, amant. 

J. We have never studied Latin, Mr. Puzzle, and of 
course, we can not understand your Latin illustrations. 

L. What is the past tense of way, can, will and shall? 

Dr. S. Might, could, would, and should. 

M. Then why don't will and shall belong to the pres- 
ent tense of tlie potential mood, as well as loould and 
should to the past? 



VARIATIONS OF VEEBS. 191 

Dr. S. Because they are generally used to foretell fu- 
ture actions or events. But when they do express 
present will or obligation, some eminent grammarians 
consider them as belonging to the present tense of the 
potential mood. But, as such nice distinctions might 
perplerx you, I have used them in these conjugations 
only in the future tenses of the indicative and sub- 
junctive. 

P. P. Dr. Syntax, I must take the liberty to question 
the propriety of giving the subjunctive mood more than 
two tenses ; the present and the past : for when a verb 
is used subjunctively, it has, in all the other tenses, the 
same form as in the indicative mood. 

Dr. S. Does not every verb but be, have the same 
form in the subjunctive mood as in the indicative, in 
the first person singular, and every person plural, even 
in the present tense, and in each number and person of 
the past tense ? " 

P. P. That is a stubborn fact which no one can deny. 

Dr. S. What becomes of the subjunctive mood in 
these two tenses, then, according to your philosophy ? 

P. P. It is restricted to the second and the third per- 
son singular of the present tense, in all verbs but be, 
and those that take the progressive or the passive form, 
having their present or their perfect participle added to 
it through all its variations. 

Dr. S. "If I forget thee, O Jerusalem!" — "If you 
love me, keep my commandments." " O that they 
were wise !" " If I have made gold my hope" — " If we 
had been in the days of our fathers" — "If ye shall de- 
spise my statutes" — "If ye will not for all this hearken 
unto me" — "If you shall have done your duty, you 
will then receive a crown of glory." Which of these 
verbs are in the subjunctive mood? 
P. P. Forget, love and were. 

Dr. S. Why are not liaue made, had been, shall despise, 
will hearken, and shall have done, in the subjunctive 
mood ? 

P. P. Because they have the form of the indicative. 



192 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Dr. S. Then why are forget, hue and were, in the sub- 
junctive mood ? Have they not the same form as in 
the indicative? 

P. P. These three verbs represent the being, action, 
or passion, as conditional, doubtful, or contingent ; and 
are therefore in the subjunctive mood, according to the 
definition. 

Dr. S. So do the other verbs ; and, therefore, accord- 
ing to the definition, they are in the subjunctive mood, 
though they have the form of the indicative. We might 
as well require a different form of the verb for each 
number and person as for every mood and tense. The 
number and person of an English verb depends upon 
its subject ; and its mood and tense, upon the modifica- 
tion of the thought which it expresses, rather than the 
variation of its form. The truth is, our verbs have 
very few inflections : they do not, like Greek and Latin 
verbs, assume a different form, to designate each num- 
ber and person, mood and tense ; as you can see at 
once, if you will take the trouble to compare the con- 
jugation of an English verb with that of a Greek or 
Latin verb. 

P. P. I see that my position is untenable. 
R. You ought to make acknowledgments for whip- 
ping me last week, because I told you that the sub- 
junctive mood has just as many tenses as the indica- 
tive, and because I would not own that I was wrong, 
when common sense showed me that I was right. 

Dr. S. Cast no reflections, Robert, He acknowledges 
his error, and admits that you were right. Let by- 
gones be by-gones. Be extremely modest when you 
contradict your teacher, if you know that he is wrong: 
admonish and suggest, but never dictate. We are all too 
apt to be tenacious of our own opinions. Pupils should 
be docile, modest, and obedient; teachers, courteous, 
condescending, and persuasive; never haughty, over- 
bearing, and dogmatical. We should be more careful 
to elicit truth and mold the tender mind aright, than to 
inculcate our peculiar notions, or display our learning. 
None of us should entertain opinions which we are not- 



VARIATIONS OF VERBS. 193 

•willing to exchange for truth, whether it come from a 
great philosopher or little child. How much more be- 
coming to a pupil or a teacher are simplicity, humility*,, 
and modesty, than affectation, pride, and arrogance. 
We know but little here below, nor can we use that 
little long. With all our boasted knowledge, what are 
we but frail ephemeral insects, sporting in the sun- 
beams of eternal truth, till blown away by the chill 
blasts of death, and buried in the drifting sand of dark 
oblivion, "alike unknowing and unknown?" Then 
why should we be proud of our attainments or abili- 
ties ? Does wisdom die with us ? or the gay world miss 
ns when we are gone ? Another generation fills our 
place, and flutters through life's little day ; in quick 
succession, followed by another, and another, till the 
very end of time. From these considerations let us 
learn humility and charity. The wisest and best philos- 
opher of all the ancients, modestly styled himself an 
inquirer after truth ; and even our own immortal New- 
ton, after all his great discoveries, regarded himself as 
a little child picking up shells along the shore, with all 
the boundless ocean of philosophy lying unexplored 
before him. We can learn no art or science perfectly 
before we are hurried off the stage. In this short life 
we just begin our education. We must graduate above, 
where we shall know as we are known, and be for ever 
adding knowledge to knowledge, and virtue to virtue, 
and eternally approaching the great Standard of perfec- 
tion. 

I. Will you let us parse some verbs etymologically ? 

Dr. S. Certainly. Select the verbs in these sen- 
tences, and mention all their variations, and the deriva- 
tion of those that are derived from other words. 

I that am formed of feeble dust, 
Make thine almighty arm my trust. 
R. Am formed is a regular transitive verb, in the passive voice, indica- 
tive mood, present tense, singular number, and first person. 

Make is an irregular transitive verb, in the active voice, indicative 
mood, present tense, singular number, and first person. 
If I am right, thy grace impart, 
Still in the right to stay. 

13 



194 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

P. Am is an irregular intransitive verb, in the subjunctive mood, 
present tense, singular number, and first person. 

Impart is a regular transitive verb, in the active voice, imperative 
mood, present tense, singular number, and second person. 

To stay is a regular intransitive verb, in the infinitive mood, and 
present tense. 

J. In what number and person is it, Phebe? 

P. A verb in the infinitive mood has no number nor 
person. 

K. Why is am in the singular number and first per- 
son? 

P. Because its subject I is: a finite verb and its 
subject must be in the same number and person. 

F. Why is impart in the singular number and second 
person ? 

P. Because its subject thoic (understood) is. 

0, consistency ! thou art a jewel, often sought, but seldom 
found. 

8. Art is an irregular intransitive verb, in the indicative mood, pres- 
ent tense, singular number, and second person. 

Sought and found are irregular transitive verbs, in the passive voice, 
and perfect participle. 

1. Why don't you mention the number and person 
of sought andfoimd? 

S. Because none but finite verbs have number and 
person : infinitives and participles are not finite verbs. 

I. What is a finite verb ? 

S. A verb in any of its variations except its infinitive 
mood and participles. 

J. Are infinitives and participles verbs? 

Dr. S. Yes ; they are verbs in the infinitive mood 
and in the participles. We call them infinitives and 
participles for the sake of brevity, as we call nouns and 
pronouns in the different cases nominatives, possessives, 
and objectives; and adjectives in the comparative and 
superlative degrees, comparatives and superlatives. 

Methinks I hear a little bird that siDgs, 
The people, by and by, will be the stronger. 

W. Methinks is an irregular intransitive verb, in the indicative mood, 
present tense, singular number, and third person. 



VARIATIONS OF VERBS. 195 

L. In the third person ! Is it not equivalent to i* 
think, and therefore in the first person ? 

P. It is an impersonal verb without a subject ; and 
of course, it has no person. 

Dr. iS. It is a double solecism, consisting of the ob- 
jective case of a pronoun in the first person used for 
the nominative, as the subject of a verb in the third 
person used for the first. It should be condemned by 
good grammarians, and laid aside as obslete. 

J. Hear and sings are irregular transitive verbs, in the 
active voice, indicative mood, present tense, singular 
number, and third person. 

L. Why, John ! how can you make sings a transitive 
verb? Etas it any object? What does the bird sing ? 

J. " The people, by and by, will be the stronger." 

L. You are exactly right : this sentence is its object. 

P. Hear is in the first person because its subject /is. 

Willie is an irregular intransitive verb in the indicative mood, future 
tense, plural number, and third person. 

He was never heard of afterwards. 

R. Was heard of is an irregular compound transitive verb, in the pas- 
sive voice, indicative mood, past tense, singular number, and third person. 

Myself have seen the wondrous man. 

I. Have seen is an irregular transitive verb, in the active voice, indica- 
tive mood, perfect tense, singular number, and first person. 

These ought ye to have done. 

L. Ought is an irregular intransitive verb, in the indicative mood, past 
tense, plural number, and second person. 

To have done is au irregular transitive verb, in the active voice, infini- 
tive mood, and perfect tense. 

Then if any man shall say unto you, Lo, here is Christ, or 
there ; believe him not. 

O. Shall say is an irregular transitive verb, In the active voice, sub- 
junctive mood, future tense, singular number, and third person. 

P. P. Does the subjunctive mood have future tenses ? 

0. Dr. Syntax says it has as many tenses as the in- 
dicative, and what we call its present tense is really an 
elliptical future tense. 

Is is an irregular intransitive verb, in the indicative mood, present 
tense, singular number, and third persoD. 



196 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Believe is a regular transitive verb, in the active voice, imperative 
mood, present tense, plural number, and second person. 

If we had been in the days of our fathers, we would not 
have been partakers with them in the blood of the prophets. 

1. Had been is an irregular intransitive verb, in the subjunctive mood, 
past-perfect ten?e, plural number, and first person. 

Would have been is an irregular intransitive verb, in the potential 
mood, past-perfect tense, plural number, and first person. 

I came: but they had passed away. 

F. Came is an irregular intransitive verb, in the indicative mood, past 
tense, singular number, and first person. 

Had passed is a regular intransitive verb, in the indicative mcod, past- 
perfect tense, plural number, and third person. 

Yea, though I walk through the valley of the shadow^of 
death, I will fear no evil. 

31. Walk is a regular intran=itive verb, in the subjunctive mood, future 
tense elliptical, singular number, and first person. 

P. P. Future tense elliptical. "What do you mean 
by that ? 

M. I mean there is an ellipsis of the auxiliary that 
denotes futurity : shall is here omitted. 

Will fear is a regular transitive verb in the active voice, indicative 
mood, future tense, singular number, and first person. 

What cau ennoble sots, or slaves, or cowards ? 

P. Can ennoble is a regular transitive verb, derived from noble by add- 
ing the prefix en, in (he active voice, potential mood, present tense, sin- 
gular number, and third person. 

J. I can't see how one word is derived from another. 

Dr. S. Take particular notice of noble and ennoble. 
Noble is a primitive word; and ennoble, a derivative 
formed from it by prefixing en, "We therefore say en- 
noble is derived from noble. Derivative words are de- 
rived from primitives by means of prefixes and suffixes. 
The syllables that are prefixed to primitive words are 
called prefixes ; and those that are annexed are called 
suffixes : as, press, compress, express, oppress, repress, sup- 
press ; compressible, compressibleness, compressibility, com- 
pression, compressive, compressure. See how many deriv- 
atives come from this little word press by means of the 



VARIATIONS OF VERBS. 197 

prefixes, com, ex, op, re, and sup, and the suffixes, ible, 
ibleness, ibility, ion, ive, and ure. These suffixes and 
several others may be added to express, oppress, repress, 
and suppress. We have thirty or forty words derived 
from press. Examine Webster's dictionary and see how 
many you can find. ' Our primitive words are few com- 
pared with our derivatives. 

Nouns are derived from verbs by adding the suffix, 
age, al, ance, ence, ion, ation, merit, ure, ar, er, or, ard, ant, 
ent, or ive: as, leak, leakage; till, tillage; avow, avowal; 
deny, denial ; attend, attendance ; allow, allowance ; acqui- 
esce, acquiescence ; infer, inference ; act, action ; confuse, 
confusion ; recite, recitation ; tempt, temptation ; banish, 
banishment; detach, detachment; please, pleasure; seize, 
seizure ; lie, liar ; read, reader ; sail, sailor ; dote, dotard; 
drunk, drunkard ; attend, attendant; preside, president; 
detect, detective. Nouns are derived from adjectives, 
sometimes by adding ness, ity, hood, or ship : as, bright, 
brightness ; solid, solidity ; false, falsehood ; hard, hard- 
ship : sometimes by adding th or t, and making a slight 
change in some of the letters : as, long, length ; deep, 
depth; high, height: and sometimes by changing t into 
ce or cy : as, diligent, diligence ; brilliant, brilliancy. They 
are derived from other nouns by adding the suffix, head, 
hood, ship, dorn, rick, ery, ian, an, ist, ite, or ade: as, God, 
godhead; priest, priesthood; lord, lordship; king, king- 
dom; bishop, bishoprick ; fool, foolery ; music, musician ; 
Luther, Lutheran ; Calvin, Calvinist ; art, artist ; JEdom, 
Edomite ; cannon, cannonade. 

Adjectives are derived from nouns by adding al, ual, 
ous, nous, ful, less, some, ish, like, ly, en, ic, ical, ary, or y : 
as, spine, spinal ; spirit, spiritual, spirituous ; joy, joyous, 
joyful, joyless ; toil, toilsome ; child, childish, childlike 
childless ; man, manly ; wool, woolen ; poet, poetic, poetical ; 
vision, visionary ; air, airy ; rain, rainy. Adjectives 
are derived from verbs by adding able, ible, ant, ent, ient, 
ive, ory, or atory, or by prefixing a: as, change, changea- 
ble ; resist, resistible; triumph, triumphant ; depend, de- 
pendent ; suffice, sufficient ; express, expressive ; commemo- 
rate, commemoratory ; declare, declaratory ; float, afloat. 



198 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Yerbs are derived from nouns and adjectives by ad- 
ding ate, en, fy, or ize, and sometimes by lengthening a 
vowel or softening a consonant: as, gravity, gravitate; 
germ, germinate ; dark, darken ; light, lighten, enlighten; 
beauty, beautify ; simple, simplify ; crystal, crystalize ; 
equal, equalize; glass, glaze; mouth, mouth. 

P. P. Let me give a few examples : fulmen, fulmin- 
ate; germen, germinate; terminus, terminate ; Deus, deify ; 
fructus, fructify ; demon, demonize ; tempus, temporize. 

R. None of us can understand you, Mr. Puzzle. 

P. P. How can you expect to understand the deriva- 
tion of our words, without a knowledge of the lan- 
guages from which they are derived ? 

Dr. S. We have not time to dwell on derivation 
now. But if you wish to get a thorough practical 
knowledge of it, study the analysis of derivative words. 

P. We have Sander's Analysis. 

Dr. S. Then study it attentively, and learn the mean- 
ing of all the prefixes and suffixes. Use it as a key to 
your dictionary. It will help you understand the defi- 
nitions. Never use a word that you don't understand. 
Consult your dictionary as your " guide, philosopher, 
and friend." 

Parse etymologically all the verbs in these lines : 

Soft slumber? now mine eyes forsake, 

My powers are all renewed ! 
May my freed spirit too awake. 

With heavenly strength endued ! 
Thou silent murderer, Sloth, no more 

My mind imprisoned keep ; 
Nor let me waste another hour 

With thee, thou felon, Sleep. 
Hark, my soul, could dying men 

One lavished hour retrieve, 
Though spent in tear?, and passed in pain, 

What treasures would they give! 
But seas of pearl, and mines of gold, 

Were offered them in vain, 
Their pearl of countless price is lost, 

And where's their promised gain? 
Lord, when thy day of dread account 

For squandered hours shall come, 
0, let them not increase th' amount, 

And swell the former sum! 



VARIATIONS OF VERBS. 199 

Teach me in health each good to prize, 

I, dying, shall esteem ; 
And every pleasure to despise, 

I then shall worthless deem. 
For all thy wondrous mercies past, 

My grateful voice I raise, 
While thus I quit the bed of rest, 

Creation's Lord to praise. 

Parse syntactically all the parts of speech in these 
sentences : 

how shall word?, with equal warmth, 

The gratitude declare, 
That glows within my ravished heart ? 

But thou canst read it there. 

M. is an exclamation. 

How is an adverb; belonging to shall declare — Rule 13 : "An adverb 
belongs to a verb, an adjective, a preposition, or another adverb." 

Shall declare is a regular transitive verb, in t he active voice, indicative 
mood, future tense, plural number, and third person ; agreeing with its 
subject words — Rule 9 : "A finite verb must agree with its subject in 
number and person." 

Words i*3 a common noun, in the neuter gender, plural Dumber, third 
person, and nominative case; the subject of shall declare — Rule 1. * 

With is a preposition ; expressing the relation of warmth to shall de- 
clare — Rule 11. 

Equal is an adjective ; belonging to warmth — Rule 8. 

Warmth ia a common noun, in the neuter gender, singular number, 
third person, and objective case ; the object of with — Rule 2. 

The is an adjective ; belonging to gratitude — Rule 8. 

Gratitude is a common noun, in the neuter gender, singular number, 
third person, and objective case ; the object of shall declare — Rule 2. 

That is a connective pronoun, connecting u glows within my ravished 
heart" to " how shall icords, with equal warmth, the gratitude declare V 
in the neuter gender, singular number, and third person ; agreeing with 
its antecedent gratitude^ Note 8 to Rule 7: and in the nominative case; 
the subject of glows— Rule 1. 

Glows is a regular intransitive verb, in the indicative mood, present 
tense, singular number, and third person ; agreeing with its subject that — 
Rule 9. 

Within is a preposition ; expressing the relation of heart to gloies — 
Rule 11. 

My is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender, and singular num- 
ber ; agreeing with its antecedent Addison — Rule 1: in the first person 
and possessive case; denoting the possession of heart — Rule 3. 

Ravished is an adjective ; belonging to heart — Rule 8. 

Heart is a common noun, in the neuter gender, singular number, third 
person, and objective case ; the object of within — Rule 2. 

* Repeat each rule that yon have occasion to apply In parsing, till you arc per- 
fectly familiar with all the rules of Eyntax. 



200 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

But is a connective ; connecting " thou canst read it there " to " how 
shall words, with equal warmth, the gratitude declare, that gloves within my 
ravished heart?" — Rule 3. 

Thou is a personal oronoun, ia the masculine gender, and singular 
number ; agreeing with God — Rule 7 : in the second person, and nom- 
inative case ; the subject of canst read — Rule 1. 

Canst read is an irregular transitive veib, in the active voice, potential 
mooj, present tense, singular number, and second person; agreeing with 
thou — Rule 9. 

It is a personal pronoun, in the neuter gender, and singular number; 
•agreeing with gratitude — Rule 1 : in the third person, and objective case ; 
the object of canst read — Rule 2. 

Tiiere is an adverb ; belonging to canst read — Rule 12. 

Pleased to the last, he crops the flowery food, 
And licks the hand just raised to shed his blood. 

P. Pleased is a regular transitive veib, in tbe passive Toice, and perfect 
participle ; depending on he as its subject — Rule 10. 

To is a preposition ; expressing the relation of last to pleased— Rule 11. 

Tlie is an adjective; belonging to last — Rule 8. 

Last is a common noun, in the neuter gender, singular number, third 
person, and objective case ; the object of to — Rule 2. 

He is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender, singular uuraber, 
third person, and nominative case ; the subject of crops— Rule 1. 

Crops is a regular transitive verb, in the active voice, indicative mood, 
present tense, singular number, and third person; agreeing with he — 
Rule 9. 

The and flowery are adjectives ; belonging to food — Rule 8. 

Food is a common noun, in the neuter gender, singular number, third 
person, and objective case; the object of crops — Rule 2. 

And is a connective ; connecting licks to crops — Rule 13. 

Licks is a regular transitive veib, in the active voice, indicative mood, 
present tense, singular number, and third person, agreeing with he — 
Rule 9. 

Tlie ia an adjective ; belonging to hand — Rule 8. 

Hand is a common noun, in the neuter gender, singular number, third 
person, and objective case; tbe object of licks — Rule 2. 

Just is an adverb ; belonging to raised— Rule 12. 

Raised is a regular transitive verb, in the passive voice, and perfect 
participle ; depending on hand as its subject — Rule 10. 

To shed is an irregular tiansitive verb, in the active voice, infinitive 
mood, and present tense; depending on hand as its subject — Rule 10. 

His is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender, singular number, 
third person, and possessive case ; denoting the possession of Mood — 
Rule S. 

Blood is a common noun, in the neuter gender, singular number, third 
person, and objective case ; the object of to shed— Rule 2. 

R. Why don't you tell what he and his agree with ? 
P. Because I don't know what they stand for. 
R. The lamb thy riot dooms to bleed to-day, 
Had be tby reason, would he skip and play ? 



.VARIATIONS OF VERBS. 201 

P. ! I see ! Lamb is the antecedent. 

Some dryly plain, without invention's aid, 
Write dull receipts how poems may be made. 

0. Some is an indefinite pronoun, in the plural number, third person, 
and nominative case; the subject of write — Rule 1. 

Dryly is an adverb ; belonging to plain -Rule 12. 

Plain is an adjective in the positive degree; belonging to some — 
Rule 8. 

Without is a preposition ; expressing the relation of aid to write — 
Rule 11. 

Invention's is a common noun, in the neuter gender, singular number, 
third person, and possessive case, denoting possession — Rule 3. 

Aid is a common noun, in the neuter gender, singular number, third 
person, and objective case ; the object of without — Rule 2. 

Write is an irregular transitive verb, in the active voice, indicative 
mood, present tense, plural number, and third person ; agreeing with 
some — Rule 1. 

Dull is an adjective in the positive degree ; belonging to- receipts — 
Rule 8. 

Receipts is a common noun, in the neuter gender, plural number, third 
person, and objective case ; the objed of write —Rule 2. 

Row is a connective ; connecting "poems may be made " to the pre- 
ceding sentence that I have just passed. 

Poems is a common noun, in the neuter gender, plural number, third 
person, and nominative case; the subject of may be made — Rule 1. 

May be made is an irregular transitive verb, iu the passive voice, po- 
tential mood, present tense, plural number, and third person ; agreeing 
with poems — Rule 1. 

Jesus can make a dying bed 

Feel soft as downy pillows are, 
While on his breast I lean my head, 

And breathe my life out sweetly there, 

S. Jesus is a proper noun, ia the masculine gender, singular number, 
third person, and nominative case ; the subject of can make — Rule 1. 

Can make is an irregular transitive verb, in the active voice, potential 
mood, present tense, singular Dumber, and third person; agreeing with 
Jesus — Rule 9. 

A and dying are adjectives; belonging to bed — Rule 8. 

Bed is a common noun, in the neuter gender, singular number, third 
person, arid objective case; the object of can mike — Rule 2. 

Feel is an irregular intransitive verb, in the infinitive mood, and pres- 
ent tense ; depending on bed as its subject — Rule 10. 

Soft is an adjective in the positive degree; belonging to bed — Rule 8. 

As is a connncctive; connecting "downy pillows are" to " Jesus can 
make a dying bed feel soft "—Rule 13. 

Downy is an adjective in the positive degree ; belonging to pillows — 
Rule 8. 

Pillows is a common noun, in the neuter gender, singular number, 
third person, and nominative case ; the subject of arc — Rule 1. 



202 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Are is an irregular intransitive verb, in the indicative mood, present 
tense, plural number, and third person ; agreeing with pillowi — Rule 9. 

While is a connective ; connecting " on his breast I lean my head, and 
breathe my life out sweetly there,' 1 '' to " Jesus can make a dying bed feel 
soft as downy piUows are" — Rule 13. 

On ia a preposition ; expressing the relation of breast to lean— Rule 11. 

His is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender, and singular num- 
ber, agreeing with Jesus — Rule 7 : in the third person and possessive 
case ; denoting possession or ownership — Rule 3. 

Breast i3 a common noun, in the neuter gender, singular number, third 
person, and objective case; the object of on — Rule 2. 

/ is a personal pronoun, in the singular number, first person, and 
nominative case ; the subject of lean — Rule 1. 

Lean is a regular transitive verb, in the active voice, indicative mood, 
present tense, singular number, and first person ; agreeing with I— 
Rule 9. 

My is a personal pronoun, in the singular number, first person, and 
possessive case ; denoting possession— Rule 3. 

Head is a common noun, in the neuter gender, singular number, third 
person, and objective case ; the object of lean— Rul« 2. 

And is a connective; connecting breathe to lean — Rule 13. 

Breathe is a regular transitive verb, in the active voice, indicative 
rocod, present tense, singular number, and first person, agreeing with I— 
Rule 9. 

My is a personal pronoun, in the singular number, first person, 
and possessive case ; denoting possession — Rule 3. 

Life is a common noun, in the neuter gender, singular number, third 
person, and objective case; the object of breathe — Rule 2. 

Out, sweetly, and there are adverbs ; belongiug to breathe — Rule 12. 

P. Why do you omit the gender of / and my ? 

S. Because it is undetermined : I don't know what 
the antecedent is. 

P. Don't I represent Watts, the author of this hymn ? 

S. I suppose it does, and any other good Christian 
who adopts the poet's language in sincerity and truth. 

Unblemished let me live, or die unknown : 
Oh ! grant me honest fame, or grant me none ! 

B. Unblemished and unknown are adjectives belonging to me — Rule 8. 

Let is an irregular transitive verb, in the active voice, imperative mood ; 
present tense, singular number, and second person ; agreeing with tliou 
understood — Rule 9. 

Me is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender, and singular num- 
ber ; agreeing with Pope— Rule 7 : in the first person, and objective 
case ; the object of let — Rule 2. 

Live and die are regular intransitive verbs, in the infinitive mood, and 
present tense, depending on me as their subject — Rule 10. 

Or is a connective; connecting die to live — Rule 13. 

Oh is an exclamation. 



VARIATIONS OF VERBS. 20S 

Grant is a regular transitive verb, in the active voice, imperative 
mood, present teuse, singular number, and second person ; agreeing with 
thou understood — Rule 9. 

Me is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender, and singular num- 
ber; agreeing with Pope — Rule 1 : in the first person, and objective case j. 
the object of to understood — Rule 2. 

. Honest is an adjective ; belonging to fame — Rule 8. 

Fame is a commoo noun, in the neuter gender, singular number, third 
person, and objective case ; the object of grant — Rule 2. 

Or is a connective ; connecting "grant me none " to "grant me honest 
fame'' 1 — Rule 13. 

None is an indefinitive pronoun, in the neuter gender, singular number, 
third person, and objective case ; the object of grant — Rule 2. 

The knave and fo^J are their own libelers. 

W. The is an adjective ; belonging to knave and fool — Rule 8. 

Knave and fool are common nouns, in the masculine gender, singular- 
number, third person, and nominative case ; the subjects of are — Rule 1. 

And is a connective ; connecting fool to knave — Rule 13. 

Are is an irregular intransitive verb, in the indicative mood, present 
tense, plural number, and third person ; agreeing with knave and fool — 
Note 3 to Rule 9. 

Their is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender, and plural num- 
ber ; agreeing with knave and fool — .Note 2 to Rule 7: in the third per- 
son, and possessive case; denoting possession — Rule 3. 

Own is an adjective ; belonging to libelers — Rule 8. 

lAbelers is a common noun, in the masculine gender, plural number,, 
third person, and nominative case; agreeing in case with knave &ndfool y 
as the predicate — Rule 5. 

P. P. Are not verbs in the infinitive mood governed 
by to f 

Dr. S. Some grammarians think so ; and others think 
that to is a part of the verb, and that the infinitive is gov- 
erned by a preceding verb, noun, or adjective. But in 
parsing it is far more important towards a clear analysis 
of sentences, if we wish to explain their real import 
and construction, to show the dependence of infinitives 
on their subjects, -than to puzzle learners with imaginary 
or disputed government of verbs in the infinitive mood. 

P. P. Do infinitives and participles always have sub- 
jects? 

Dr. S. Except when they are used abstractly. 
Their dependence on their subjects is not so close, di- 
rect, and intimate, as that of finite verbs. An infinitive 
or participle expresses a collateral or concurrent thought, 
attending that which is expressed by the leading finite 



204 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

verb, and glancing obliquely at the subject : as, " He 
has come to die and to redeem his friend." " The flower 
of love lies bleeding.'' 1 " Want goes smiling from mj 
door." 

Whether the charmer sinner it or saint it, 
If folly grow romantic, I must paint it. 

I. Whether is a connective ; competing " the charmer sinner it or 
saint it " to " if folly grow romantic, I must px'nt it — Rule 13. 

The is an adjective ; belonging to charmer — Rule 8. 

Charmer is a common noun, in the feminine gender, singular number, 
third person, and nominative case ; the subject of sinner aud saint — 
Rule 1. 

Sinner and saint are regular intransitive verbs, ia the subjunctive 
mood, present tense, singular number, and third person ; agreeing with 
charmer — Rule 9. 

It is a personal pronoun, used as a mere expletive representing noth- 
ing. 

Or is a connective; connecting saint it to sinner it — Rule 13. 

If'w a connective; connecting '■ folly grow romantic''' to "I must paint 
it"— Rule 13. 

Folly is a common noun, in the neuter gender, singular namber, third 
person, and nominative case; the subject of grow — Rule 1. 

Grow is an irregular intransitive verb, in the subjunc'ive mood, present 
tense, singular number, and third person, agreeing with folly — Rule 9. 

Romantic is an adjective; belonging to folly— Rule 8. 

7is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender, and singular number » 
agreeing with Pope — Rule 7 : in the first person, and nominative case ; 
the subject of must paint — Rule 1. 

Must paint ia a regalar transitive verb, in the active voice, potential 
mood, present ttuse, singular number, and first person ; agreeing with 1 — 
Rule 9. 

It is a personal pronoun, in the neuter gender, and singular number ; 
agreeing with/o% — Rule 7 : in the third person and objective case ; the 
object of must paint — Rule 2. 

P. P. Are not sinner and saint transitive verbs ? 

Dr. S. Do they express the transition of thoughts? 

P. P. Certainly ; the transition of thoughts and ac- 
tions passing from the subject charmer to the object it. 

Dr. S. What idea or thing does it here represent 
that can be the object of a thought or action? Pause 
a moment, Mr. Puzzle, and reflect. Can either of these 
verbs be used in the passive voice ? 

P.P. Let me see. Whether it be sinnered or sainted 
by the charmer, if folly grow romantic, it must be 
painted by me. 



VARIATIONS OP VERBS. 205 

Dr. S. O don't provoke the wrath of Pope by tortur- 
ing his language so outrageously ! 

Whate'er the passion, knowledge, fame, or pelf, 
Not one will change his neighbor for himself. 
The learned is happy Nature to explore, 
The fool is happy that he knows no more ; 
The rich is happy in the plenty given, 
The poor contents him with the care of heaven. 
See the blind beggar dance, the cripple sing, 
The sot a hero, lunatic a king ; 
The starving chymist in his golden views, 
Supremely blessed the poet in his muse. 

See some strange comfort every state attend, 
And pride bestowed on all, a common friend : 
See some fit passion every age supply. 
Hope travels through, nor quits us when we die. 
Behold the child, by Nature's kindly law 
Pleased with a rattle, tickled with a straw : 
Some livelier plaything gives his youth delight, 
A little louder, but as empty quite : 
Scarfa, garters, gold, amuse his riper stage, 
And beads and prayer-books are the toys of age : 
Pleased with this bauble still, as that before, 
Till tired he sleeps, and life's poor play is o'er. 

But all our praises why should lords engross ? 
Rise, honest muse ! and siDg the Man of Ross : 
Pleased Vega echoes thro' her winding bounds, 
And rapid Severn hoarse applause resounds. 
"Who hung with woods yon mountain's sultry brow? 
From the dry rock who bade the waters flow ? 
Not to the skies in useless columns tost, . 
Or in preud falls magnificently lost, 
But clear and ariless, pouring thro' the plain 
Health to the sick, and solace to the swain. 
Whose causeway parts the vale with shady rowa ? — 
Whose seats the weary traveler repose ? 
Who taught that heaven-directed spire to rise ? 
" The Man of Ross," each lisping babe replies. 
Behold the market-place with poor o'erspread ! 
The Man of Ross divides the weekly bread ; 
He feeds yon alm3 house, neat, but void of state, 
Where Age and Want sit smiling at the gate : 
Him portioned maids, apprenticed orphans, blest ; 
The young who labor, and the old who rest. 
Is any sick ? The Man of Ross relieves, 
Prescribes, attends, the medicine makes and gives. 
Is there variance? enter but his door, 
Baulked are the courts, and contest is no more : 
Despairing quacks with curses flee the place, 
And vile attorneys, now a useless race. 



206 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Thrice happy man ! enabled to pursue 
What all so wish, but want the power to do ! 
Oh ! say what sums that generous hand supply ? 
What mines to swell that boundless charity ? 
Of debts and taxes, wife and children, clear, 
This man possessed five hundred pounds a year. 
Blush, grandeur! blush ; proud courts! withdraw your blaze : 
Ye little stars ! hide your diminished rays. 

And what ! no monument, inscription stone? 
His race, his form, his name, almost unknown? 
Who builds a church to God, and not to fame, 
Will never mark the marble with his name. 
Go search it there, where to te born and die 
Of rich and poor makes all the history ; 
Enough that virtue filled the space between, 
Proved by the ends of being to have been. 



CONVERSATION SIXTH 



SYNTAX. 



R. Dr. Syntax, what's the use of all this parsing? 

Dr. S. It helps you understand the meaning and con- 
struction of each sentence that you parse, and thus pre- 
pares you for constructing sentences correctly. Parse 
me in this sentence, and you'll see : You and me are 
learning grammer. 

R. Me is a personal pronoun, in the singular number, third person, 
and nominative case ; one of 'the subjects of the finite verb are learning, 
according to Rule 1. 

Dr. S. Is me in the nominative case ? Decline it, 
and see. 

R. Nom. I, Poss. my, Obj. me. Oh ! I see ! Me a 
subject of the finite verb are learning, is in the object- 
ive case, and therefore, Eule 1 is violated. Me should 
be /; thus, You and I are learning grammar, according 
to Rule 1 : " The subject of a finite verb must be in the 
nominative case." 

Dr. S. Parse who in this sentence : Who did you 
buy that book of? 



SXNTAX. 207 

E. Who is an interrogative pronoun, iD the singular number, third 
person, and nominative case. But who is the object of the preposition 
of: it should, therefore, be in the objective case; thus, Whom did you 
buy that book of ; according to Rule 2. " The object of a verb or pre- 
position must be in the objective case." 

Dr. S. That will do in common conversation, Eobert. 
But it is more elegant to say, Of whom did you buy 
that book ; as you will see when you have studied 
rhetoric. I now present the leading rules of syntax. 
Study them till they become as familiar as household 
words. 

Eule i. Nominatives. 
The subject of a finite verb must be in the nom- 
inative case. 

Eule ii. Objectives. 

The object of a verb or preposition must be in 
the objective case. 

Eule hi. Possessives. 
A noun or pronoun that denotes possession or 
ownership, must be in the possessive case. 
Eule iv. Apposition. 
A word in apposition with another must agree 
with it in case. 

Eule v. Predicates. 
The case of the predicate must be the same as 
that of the subject. 

Eule vi. Nom. Independent. 
A noun or pronoun whose case depends on no 
other word, is in the nominative case independent. 
Eule vii. Pronouns. 
A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in 
gender and number. 

Eule viii. Adjectives. 
An adjective belongs to a noun or pronoun. 



208 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Eule ix. Finite Verbs. 
A finite verb must agree with its subject in 
number and person. 

Eule x. Infinitives and Participles. 
Infinitives and participles depend on nouns or 
pronouns as subjects. 

Eule xl Prepositions. 
A preposition should express the relation in- 
tended. 

Eule xii. Adverbs. 
An adverb belongs to a verb, an adjective, a 
preposition, or another adverb. 

Eule xiii. Connectives. 
A connective connects words or phrases, sen- 
tences or paragraphs. 

Eule xiv. Ellipses. 
Such words as weaken or encumber a sentence 
should be omitted ; but none that are essential to 
its harmony, correctness, perspicuity, or strength. 
Eule xv. General Principles. 
Every word should have the application, form, 
and construction, that are sanctioned by the best au- 
thority ; and all the parts of a sentence should cor- 
respond to each other. 

P. P. Are these all the rules of syntax thatjyou 
have? 

Dr. S. These are all the leading rules. I have some 
special rules, subordinate to some of these, which I will 
now present as notes. 

NOTES TO RULE I. 

1. Every nominative not in apposition, or the predi- 
cate, or independent, must be the subject of a verb : as, 
" The men were there" instead of " The men they were 
there." 



SYNTAX. 209 

2. When a verb in the active voice is followed by 
two objects, the direct object should be made the sub- 
ject of the verb in the passive voice : as, " He taught 
me grammar; I was taught grammar." " He told me 
the truth; The truth was told me." 

NOTES TO EULE II. 

1. Every transitive verb in the active voice, and every 
preposition requires an object: as, "I wrote to him and 
warned him of his danger." "She visits the poor and 
gives them food and clothing." It would be improper 
to say, " I wrote to, and warned him of his danger." " She 
visits, and gives the poor food and clothing." 

2. An intransitive verb does not admit an object, un- 
less it is used transitively: as, "Sit you down." 
"Haste thee away." This construction is not sanc- 
tioned by good authority. 

3. The object of a verb or preposition should not be 
so far separated from it as to produce ambiguity or 
harshness : as " I can not overlook, unless you reform, 
your disgraceful conduct^ which your friends are ashamed 
of you for. 11 It should be, " Unless you reform, I can 
not overlook your disgraceful conduct, for ivhich yourr 
friends are ashamed, of you." 

NOTES TO RULE III. 

1. Every noun and pronoun in the possessive case 
should have its proper form : as, " This is my father's 
house." "The tree is known by its fruit." Not my 
fathers house, or it's fruit. 

2. The sign of possession should be used immediately 
before the name of the thing possessed, either expressed 
or understood, and nowhere else: as, Is this John's 
book? ISTo: it is William's. Ann and Flora's father 
is sick. Give me John the Baptist's head. This is 
the duke of Bridgewaters canal. Whose house is 
that ? The lord mayor of London's. Is this Phebe's, 
Kate's, or Sarah's book ? 

3. When of with its object is equivalent in sense to 
a possessive, that form should be used which the per- 

14 



210 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

spicuity and arrangement of the sentence, as well as 
variety and euphony, require : a disagreeable repetition 
of either should be avoided by a proper intermixture 
of both, or by a different construction of the sentence : 
as, "The father of my friend's wife, or my friend's*' 
father-in-law, instead of "My friend's wife's father." 

4. For the sake of euphony, we omit the apostrophic 
s, but retain the apostrophe, in plural nouns ending 
with s, and in some singular nouns ending with the 
sound of s, especially in poetry, and when the follow- 
ing word begins with s: as, ■" Achilles' wrath to Greece.' 1 " 
"For conscience 1 sake." " For righteousness* sake." But 
singular nouns do not very often admit this omission 
in prose. 

NOTES TO RULE VII. 

1. When a collective noun used as an antecedent ex- 
presses man}^ as one whole, it requires a singular pro- 
noun in the neuter gender, but when it expresses many 
as individuals, the pronoun must be in the plural num- 
ber, and in the same gender as the individuals that com- 
pose the collection : as, " The mob was dispersed and its 
leader arrested." "The multitude eagerly pursue pleas- 
ure as their chief good." 

2. Two or more antecedents taken together require a 
plural pronoun : as, " Saul and Jonathan were lovely and 
pleasant in their lives, and in their death they were not 
divided." 

3. Two or more singular antecedents taken separately 
require a singular pronoun: as, John or Charles has 
lost his book. Every officer and private did his duty. 

4. When antecedents or subjects that are taken to- 
gether are in different persons, in making the pronoun 
or verb agree with them in the plural, we prefer the 
second person to the third, and the first to either or 
both of the other persons, for thou and he are equivalent 
to you, and thou and I, or he and I, or thou, he and I, are 
equivalent to ice : as, Have James and thou learned your 
lessons. Thou and I have finished our tasks. John and 
I will go, if ice can. Thou, and Harriet, and I have done 



SYNTAX. 211 

our duty. As verbs in the plural number have no va- 
riation in our language on account of person, violations 
of this note appear only in the pronouns. But in pars- 
ing a verb whose subjects are in different persons, it 
should be observed. 

5. When antecedents that are taken separately are in 
different genders, numbers, or person, strict propriety 
requires the pronoun to agree with each antecedent 
separately : as, " James has lost his book ; or Mary has 
lost hers.' 1 "Have we neglected our duty? or they, 
theirs V " Your teacher has neglected his duty ; or you 
have neglected yours." "Every man, woman, and 
child must do his or Aerduty." But to avoid formality 
and stiffness, some grammarians prefer the masculine gen- 
der to the feminine, the plural number to the singular, 
the second person to the third, and the first to either or 
both : as, " Have we or they neglected our duty ?" 
"Your teacher or you have neglected your duty." 
" Every man, woman, and child must do their duty." 
"We can sometimes avoid this solecism by giving the 
sentence a different construction : as, " Every man must 
do his duty; and so must every woman, and every 
child." 

6. Who is applied to persons, and to things personi- 
fied ; and which to things not personified : as, He whom 
thou lovest is sick. The star luhich they saw in the 
east went before them. 

7. That is applied to persons and things. It is pref- 
erable to ivho or which when it is preceded by the in- 
terrogative who, by antecedents representing persons and 
things, by the adjective same, by a superlative, by an 
unlimited antecedent before a restrictive clause, and in 
general whenever the propriety of who or which is 
doubtful : as, " Who is this that cometh from the 
South ?" " The men and the things that he has studied 
have not improved his morals." " He is the same man 
that we saw before." " The sun is the brightest object 
that we can anywhere behold." " Animals that live on 
flesh are called carnivorous." " He instructed and fed 
the crowds that surrounded him." 



212 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

8. The connective pronouns who, which, that, and as, 
must always agree with their antecedents in person, as 
well as in gender and number, and verbs must agree 
with them accordingly: as, "I who speak, and you that 
hear me, and the things which are spoken of, must pass 
away." 

9. When the subject and the predicate are in differ- 
ent numbers or persons, and a pronoun is made to agree 
with either of them as its antecedent, that agreement 
must be preserved throughout the sentence : as, " Thou 
art a friend that has often relieved me, and that has not 
deserted me now in the time of peculiar need ;" or, 
"Thou who hast often relieved me, and who hast not 
deserted me now in the time of peculiar need, art a 
friend." 

10. The same antecedent should be represented by 
the same pronoun in the different parts of a sentence : 
as, "I am the Lord that maketh all things ; that stretch- 
eth forth the heavens alone ; that spreadeth abroad the 
earth by myself; that frustrateth the tokens of the liars, 
and maketh diviners mad." "There stood by me this 
night the angel of God, whose I am, and whom I serve, 
saying, Fear not, Paul ; thou must be brought before 
Cassar : and lo, God hath given thee all them that sail 
with thee." 

11. Such pronouns as the sense requires should be 
used in the construction of sentences, and be so placed 
as to prevent ambiguity and inelegance: as, "Has any 
of the modern poets ever equalled Homer?" " None of 
them can rival Homer in poetic fire ;" instead of either 
of the modern poets, and neither of them. " He that de- 
stroys without pity is like a beast of prey." "I whs 
give the orders to-day, am the general." "He is like a 
beast of prey that destroys without pity." "I am the 
general who give the orders to-day," would be inele- 
gant, if not ambiguous. 

12. When the structure of the sentence will not 
allow a pronoun to be so placed as to show clearly what 
it represents, the noun should be repeated, or the sen- 
tence should be differently constructed: as, "We see 



SYNTAX 213 

the beautiful variety of color in the rainbow, and are 
led to consider the cause of it." It should be, "We 
see the beautiful variety of color in the rainbow, and 
are led to consider the cause of that variety, or "We 
are led to consider the cause of the beautiful variety of 
color which we see in the rainbow." 

NOTES TO RULE VIII. 

1. An adjective denoting unity or plurality, and the 
noun to which it belongs, must agree in number : as, 
One pound, two pounds ; this kind, these kinds. 

2. Such adjectives as the sense requires should be 
used, and none that are not essential to the perspicuity, 
strength, or harmony of the sentence. 

3. Every adjective should be so placed as to show 
clearly to what it belongs, and best promote the per- 
spicuity, strength, and elegance of the sentence : as, 
A span of fine horses, not A fine span of horses. 
" Great is the Lord ! just and true are thy ways, thou 
King of saints!" 

4. Before a word beginning with a vowel sound, 
euphony requires an, and a before a word beginning 
with a consonant sound : as, an enemy, an hour ; a horse, 
a unit. 

5. An adjective should not be used for an adverb, 
nor an adverb for an . adjective: as, "Bead slow." 
" Such a bad temper is seldom found." " We may hope 
for a soon and prosperous issue." Here the adjectives 
slow and such are improperly used for the adverbs slowly 
and so, and the adverb soon, for the adjective speedy. 

6. When the latter term of comparison excludes the 
former, the comparative degree should be used: as, 
"Wisdom is better than weapons of war." But when 
the latter term of comparison includes the former, the 
superlative degree should be used: as, "Gold is the 
heaviest and most valuable of all metals." 

7. Double comparatives and superlatives should be 
avoided : as, Worser conduct. Lesser hopes. The most 
straightest sect. The most noblest of them all. A more 



214 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

superior work. We should sa}^ Worse conduct, less 
hopes, the straighiest sect, &c. 

8. Adjectives whose signification is not capable of 
increase or diminution, such as square, circular, triangu- 
lar, parallel, perpendicular, full, perfect, right, extreme, con- 
summate, complete, unexceptionable, universal, &c, do not 
admit comparative terminations nor adverbs of degree. 

NOTES TO RULE IX. 

1. When a collective noun used as a subject expresses 
many as one whole, it requires a singular verb ; but 
when it expresses many as individuals, the verb must 
be plural: as, "The meeting was large." " The audi- 
dence were delighted." 

2. A sentential subject taken as one whole requires 
a singular verb : as, " To live and die is all I have to 
do." " That warm climates should accelerate the growth 
of the human body, and shorten its duration, is very 
reasonable to believe." 

3. Two or more subjects taken together require a 
plural verb : as, " Honor and fame from no condition 
me." " To be temperate in eating and drinking, to use 
exercise in the open air, and to preserve the mind free 
from tumultuous emotions, are the best preservatives of 
health." 

4. Two or more singular subjects taken separately 
require a singular verb: as, "Ignorance or negligence 
has caused this mistake." "To lie or to swear is im- 
moral." " Every word, tone, look, and gesture, leaves its 
impress on the mind." "A day, an hour of virtuous 
liberty, is worth a whole eternity of bondage." 

5. When subjects that are taken separately are in 
different numbers or persons, the verb must agree with 
that which is placed nearest to it : as, " The teacher or 
the scholars were to blame." " You or I am deceived." 
But it is generally better to use the verb or its auxiliary 
with each subject : as, " The teacher was to blame, or 
the scholars were." " You are deceived, or I am." 

6. Two or more nouns that signify the same person 
or thing can hardly be considered distinct subjects or 



SYNTAX. 215 

antecedents : they are only different names, titles, or epi- 
thets for the same subject or antecedent ; and therefore, 
they require singular verbs and pronouns : as, " Our 
Lord and Saviour ivas crucified between two thieves." 
"This celebrated philosopher and poet was banished 
from his country." 

7. Every finite verb must have a subject: as, "If the 
calm in which he was born and lasted so long, had con- 
tinued." It should be, " and which lasted so long." 

NOTES TO KULE X. 

1. To, the sign of the infinitive, is omitted after bid, 
let, make, see, hear, and feel, in the active voice, and some- 
times after behold, observe, perceive, dare, need, have and 
help: as, " Let it come." " He made us do it." " I saw 
them run." 

" My fairest earldom would I give, 
To bid Clan Alpine's chieftain live.' 1 '' 

2. After stop, leave off, commence, continue, keep, abhor, 
avoid, forbear, and help, participles are generally used 
instead of infinitives : as, " Stop drinking rum." 
"Leave off tippling." "Have you commenced reading 
Homer?" " They continued asking him." " He keeps 
singing chickadee-dee." " We abhor being drunkards." 
"Avoid reading too fast." " Who can forbear pitying 
them ?" " I could not help laughing." 

8. A participle should not have the construction of 
a verb and that of a noun or adjective at the same 
time: as, " From calling of names he proceeded to blows." 
"To eat with unwashed hands was disgusting a Jew." 
We should say, " From calling names he proceeded to 
blows." " To eat with unwashed hands was disgusting 
to a Jew." 

4. Every infinitive and every participle that is not used 
abstractly must have its proper subject : as, " By drink- 
ing moderately, toe form intemperate habits." " Looking 
through the telescope, / could sec Jupiter and his 
moons." "2" intend to go next week." It' we say, "By 
drinking moderately intemperate habits are formed ;" 
"Looking through the telescope, Jupiter and his moons 



216 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

could be seen;" " It is my intention to go next week;" 
we deprive drinking, looking, and to go of their proper 
subjects, and obscure the sense. 

5. Every infinitive and every participle should have 
its proper form and application : one should not be used 
for the other ; nor should either of them be used where 
a finite verb or a noun would better express the mean- 
ing: as, "I intend doing my duty," for " I intend to do 
my duty." "1 doubt them to be honest," for " I doubt 
that they are honest," or " I doubt their honesty." 

6. We should be extremely careful to give the past 
tense and the perfect participle the forms that are sanc- 
tioned by the best authority, and never to use one of 
them for the other. 

NOTES TO RULE XI. 

1. No unnecessary preposition should be used, nor 
should any preposition that the sense requires be omit- 
ted : as, u I do not approve of his style." "Nothing 
was paid him." "They fled their country." Say, "I 
do not approve his style." "Nothing was paid to him." 
"They fled from their country." 

2. A preposition should be placed so near the terms 
of relation as to prevent ambiguity and inelegance : as, 
"I saw a man with a red nose digging potatoes." " I 
saw a man digging potatoes with a red nose," would be, 
not only inelegant, but ludicrous. 

NOTES TO RULE XII. 

1. Adverbs should be so placed as to express the 
meaning clearly, and be most conducive to the harmony, 
strength, and beauty, of the sentence : as, " These rules 
will be clearly understood after they have been diligently 
studied." This is better than " These rules will clearly 
be understood after they have diligently been studied," 
or " These rules will be understood clearly after they 
have deen studied diligently." 

2. Double negatives should be avoided, unless we 
mean to express an affirmation ; for two negatives in 
the same clause destroy each other: as, " No man has 



SYNTAX. 217 

never been so afflicted." "I dortt know nothing about 
it." Say, "No man has ever been so afflicted." " I 
know nothing about it," or " I don't know anything 
about it." 

3. We should be careful to use such adverbs as the 
sense requires, and such as are sanctioned by the best 
authority : as, " Where is thy home, and whither art 
thou fled ?" 

NOTES TO EULE XIII. 

1. Correlative connectives should be properly adapted 
to the words with which they are coupled : as, Both — 
and; either — or; neither — nor; whether — or; though — 
yet ; as — as ; as — so ; so — as, so — that, such — as, such — 
that; else — than, other — than, and rather — than. The 
latter word in each of these pairs is the proper cor- 
relative of the former : as, " He is both wise and good." 
"I will either go or send." "Give me neither poverty 
worriches." " Though deep, yet clear ; though gentle, yet 
not dull." 

2. We should be careful to use such connectives as 
the sense requires, and such as are sanctioned by the 
best authority. 

These rules and notes comprise the main principles 
of syntax, which we will now reduce to practice. As I 
select examples of their violation, parse them and cor- 
rect them. This exercise should be continued till you 
can construct correctly every sentence that you speak 
or write, and clearly understand what you read. 

I. How does parsing make us understand what we 
read ? 

Dr. S. Can you parse a sentence that }*ou don't un- 
derstand ? 

M. No, sir ; none of us can parse a sentence without 
ascertaining its meaning and observing its construc- 
tion. 

Dr. S. Then parsing makes us cultivate a habit of 
finding out the meaning and observing the construction 
of sentences, and thus we are prepared for understand- 



218 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

ing what we read, detecting errors, and constructing 
sentences correctly. 

$ When a sentence is improper, can we find it out 
by parsing? 

Dr. & Try a few sentences and see. Parse them in 
this sentence : Them that despise me shall be lightly 
esteemed. 

S. Them is a personal pronoun, in the plural number, third person, 
and objective cfkse. But them is the subject of the finite verb shall be 
esteemed, and should therefore be in the nominative case; thus, They 
that despise me shall be lightly esteemed; according to Rule 1. 

They that honor me I will honor. Parse they. 

P. They is a personal pronoun, in the plural number, third person, 
and nominative case. But they is the object of the verb mil honor, and 
should therefore be in the objective case; thus, Them that honor me I 
will honor — Rule 2. 

This is my brothers book. Parse brothers. 

R. Brothers is a common noun, in the masculine gender, singular 
number, third person, and possessive case ; denoting possession or own- 
ership. It should therefore have the proper form ot a possessive; thus, 
This is my brother's book — Note 1 to Rule 3. 

Have you seen the peddler to-day, he that sold me 
this watch ? Parse he. 

W. He is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender, singular num- 
ber, third person, and nominative case. But he is in apposition with 
peddler, the object of have seen, and should therefore be \u the objective 
case; thus, Have you seen the peddler to-dav, him that sold me this 
watch?— Rule 4. 

It is me. Parse me. 

0. Me is a personal pronoun, in the singular number, first person, and 
objective case. But mz is the predicate of it, the subject of the finite 
verb is, and should therefore be in the nominative case ; thus, It, is I— 
Rule 5. 

Him being for us, we are not afraid to die. Parse 
him. 

1. Him is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender, singular num- 
ber, third person, aud objective case. But the case of him depends on 
no other words; and therefore it should be in the nominative case in- 
depeiident ; thus, He being for us, we are not afraid to die — Rule 6. 

Every man must account for themselves. Parse 
themselves. 



SYNTAX. 219 

L. Themselves is a compound personal pronoun, in the masculine gen. 
der, and plural number; agreeing with its antecedent man. But man is 
singular; and therefore themselves should be singular; thus, Every man 
must account for himself— Rule 1. 

"Where did you get those set of books ? Parse those. 

M. 1 hose is an adjective denoting plurality, and belonging to set. 
But set is singular ; and therefore those should be singular; thus, Where 
did you get that set of books — Note 1 to Rule"8. 

When was you there ? Parse was. 

F. Was is an irregular intransitive veib, in the indicative mood, past 
tense, singular number, and second person ; agreeing with its subject 
you. Bat you is plural; and therefore was should be plural ; thus, When 
were you there ? — Rule 9. 

Has Ann and Kate been here ? Parse has been. 

B. Has been is an irregular intransitive verb, in the indicative mood> 
perfect tense, singular number, and third person. But it has two sub- 
jects, A nn and Kate taken together: it should therefore be plural; 
thus. Have Ann and Kate been here ? — Note 3 to Rule 9. 

Wisdom or folly govern us. Parse govern. 

M. Govern is a regular transitive verb, in the active voice, indicative 
mood, present tenee, plural uunnber, and third per?on. But it has two 
singular subjects, wisdom and folly, taken separately : it should therefore 
be singular; thus, Wisdom or folly governs us — Note 4 to Rule 9. 

They are constantly running in debt. Parse in, 

I. In is a preposition ; expressing the relation of debt to are running. 
But in does not express the relation intended : it should be into ; thus, 
They are constantly running into debt — Rule 11. 

P. Can't we correct false syntax just as well without 
parsing ? 

Dr. S. A good grammarian observes the structure 
of each sentence at a glance. He analyzes mentally 
every sentence that he reads, speaks, or writes ; and sees 
as quick as thought, if any rule or note is violated. By 
the constant use of proper words and sentences, propriety 
of speech becomes a sort of second nature to him, so 
that he can speak and write grammatically without 
thinking of grammar: incorrect expressions shock him 
as blemishes in pictures do the skillful artist, or dis- 
cordant notes, the amateur in music. He reduces the- 
ory to practice ; and correct expressions flow spon- 



220 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

taneously from his tongue and pen. Now we will 
change the order of our exercises, and correct a few 
sentences without parsing. 

She learns faster than him. Who do you see. 

L. Him is the subject of the finite vorb harm, understood: it should 
therefore be in the nominative case ; thus, She learns faster than he — 
Rule 1. 

Who is the object of the verb do see: it should therefore be in the 
objective case ; tbus, Whom do you see ? — Rule 2, 

Your fathers merit is nor your's. 

R. Fathers and your's are in the possessive case ; and therefore they 
should have the proper form; thus, Your father's merit is not yours — 
Note 1 to Rule 3. 

"We should fear and obey the Author of our being, 
even He who has power to reward or punish us for 
ever. 

8. He is in apposition with Author, the object of the verbs should 
fear and obey: it should therefore be in the objective case; thus. We 
should fear and obey the Author of our beiDg, even Him who has power 
to reward or punish us for ever — Rule 4, 

It was not her, but him. Who do you take me to 
be? 

W. It, the subject of was, is in the nominative case; and therefore her 
and him, the predicates, should also be in the nominative; thus, It was 
not she, but he — Rule 5. 

Me, the subject of to be, is in the objective case; and therefore who, 
the predicate, should be so too ; thus, Whom do you take me to be ? — 
Rule 5. 

Him that is unjust, let him be unjust still. 

J". Him should be in the nominative case independent, because its 
case depends on no other word ; thus, He that is unjust, let him be unjust 
still— Rule 6. 

The dog is true and faithful to its master. 

J. Its should be in the masculiDe gender, because its antecedent dog 
is; thus, The dog is tiue and faithful to his master — Rule 7. 

'Twas very want that sold them for two pound. 

P. Pound should be plural, to agree w'th its adjective two, which de- 
notes plurality; thus, 'Twas very want that sold them for two pounds— 
Note 1 to Rule 8. 



SYNTAX 221 

Thee knows that we was not to blame. 

K. Thee should be in the nominative case, because it is the subject of 
a finite verb; thug, Thou knowest — Kulel. 

Knows should be in tbe second person, because its subject lliou is ; and 
was should be plural, because its subject ice is ; thus, Thou knowest that 
we were not to blame — Rule 9. 

Dr. S. Like meseems and methinlcs, thee knows is a 
double solecism. 

Where is Charles and Henry ? 

O. Is should be plural, because its subjects, Charles and Henry, are 
taken together ; thus, W here are Charles and Henry ? — Note 3 to 
Rule 9. 

Charles or Henry are to blame. 

F. Are should be singular, because it has two singular subject?, 
Charles and Henry, taken separately ; thus, Charles or Henry is to 
blame— Note 4 to Rule 9. 

John or Ida left their umbrella here. 

M. Iheir has two antecedent?, John and Ida, taken separately, and 
in different genders : it should therefore agree with each of them sepa- 
rately ; thus, John left his umbrella here, or Ida left her's — Note 5 to 
Rule 1. 

I could not help pitying of him. 

i?. Herepitying h used as a verb ; and therefore, to prevent its having 
the construction of a noun also, of should be omitted ; thus, I could 
not help pitying him— Note 3 to Rule 10. 

M. Why, Eobert ! you have violated two notes in 
correcting one example : you use having as a verb 
with construction for its object, and also as a noun with 
the possessive its before it, and as the object of to pre- 
vent. To prevent it from having this double construc- 
tion, you should insert from after its, and change its 
case from the possessive to the objective, making it the 
object of to prevent ; thus, To prevent it from having 
the construction of a noun. 

R. What other rule or note have I violated ? 

M. The infinitive to prevent is not used abstractly ; it 
should therefore have its proper subject ; thus, To pre- 
vent it from having the construction of a noun also, we 
should omit of— Note 4 to Rule 10. 



222 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

P. P. You are to critical, Mary. Our best writers 
disregard these notes : I very seldom observe them my- 
self. As we have no gerunds, gerundives, or supines, 
they are rendered in English by infinitives and partici- 
ples : as, " Tempus petendi pacem ; tempus petendac 
pacis." Time of seeking peace. Facile dictu. Easy to 
tell, or to be told. The use of participles as verbal 
nouns is sanctioned by our best authorities. Like Latin 
gerunds, they perform the two-fold office of nouns and 
verbs. 

R. Your Latin illustrations would, undoubtedly, be 
very clear to Latin students. But to us poor English 
dunces, they are puzzleendus, puzzleendi, puzzleen- 
dum. 

P. P. Then analyze these English participles, which 
are used as nouns and verbs ; performing the offices of 
both parts of speech at the same time, like Latin ge- 
runds : "By our treating others unkindly, we injure our- 
selves." "I have no doubt of his being the author." 
" Your success in speaking and writing, depends on 
your studying these rules diligently, and carefully ob- 
serving them." ''The time of his' leaving home and 
seeking his fortune in the wide world, had arrived." 
" All our faculties are improved by our exercising them." 
" Giving advice unasked is a piece of rudeness." " Talk- 
ing much about ourselves is egotism." " Piitting on airs 
is affectation." " His having done so is evident." 

Dr. S. Some of your examples, like unruly children, 
need correction. It would be better to give them the 
following construction : " By treating others unkindly, 
we injure ourselves." "I have no doubt that he is the 
author." "Your success in speaking and writing de- 
pends on 3'our diligent study of these rules, and j^our 
careful observance of them." " The time for him to leave 
home and seek his fortune in the wide world, had ar- 
rived." "We improve all our faculties by exercising 
them." " To give advice unasked, is a piece of rude- 
ness." "To talk much about ourselves is egotism." 
" To put on airs is affectation." " That he has done so is 
evident." 



SYNTAX. 223 

P. P. Do not our best grammarians very often use 
infinitives and participles as verbal nouns ? 

Dr. S. Yes ; but when they are so used they are to 
be regarded not as verbs, but nouns; as subjects of 
verbs, or objects of verbs or prepositions ; and therefore 
they cannot properly have the construction of verbs at 
the same time: as, " To be contents his natural desire." 
" Sir Roger's dying was one of the wisest things he ever 
did." " Practice walking." " Walking is a healthy ex- 
ercise." " He spends much time in reading and wri- 
ting. 1 ' They are sometimes used as predicates, and some- 
times in apposition with nouns or pronouns, and some- 
times independent : as,. " To enjoy is to obey." "It is 
not all of life to live." " To die; — to sleep ; — To sleep! 
perchance to dream; — Ay there's the rub." 

P. P. When they have subjects or objects, have they 
not the construction of verbs, though they are them- 
selves the subjects of other verbs, or the objects of 
verbs or prepositions, or in apposition, or predicates : 
as, " The selling Joseph was overruled for good." " You 
should avoid telling tales unnecessarily." " Our commit- 
ting grammar to memory does not make us good gram- 
marians." "His betraying his country ruined him for 
ever." "By reducing theory to practice, we learn to 
speak and write our language correctly." " To bear is 
to conquer our fate." " 'Tis sweet to hear the honest 
watch-dog's bark." 

Dr. S. A participle with an adjective or a noun or 
pronoun in the possessive case before it, becomes a verbal 
noun, and does not admit the construction of a verb. 
Therefore selling, committing and betraying, can not 
properly have objects, but should be used as nouns 
with of after them ; thus, " The selling of Joseph was 
overruled for good." "Our committing of grammar to 
memory does not make us good grammarians." "His 
betraying of his country ruined him for ever." But in- 
finitives and participles are not converted into verbal 
nouns by having prepositions or transitive verbs placed 
before them. Consequently, in the examples that you 
have just given, telling, reducing, and to speak, and write, 



224 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

though apparently the objects of should avoid, Jjy, and 
learn, retain the nature of verbs, and have their subjects 
and their objects, and have adverbs also belonging to 
them. 

P. P. But is not telling really the object of should 
avoid, to speak and write, the objects of learn, and reduc- 
ing, the object of by? 

Dr. S. The real objects, strictly speaking, are the 
phrases that begin with these infinitives and partici- 
ples ; for such phrases, and even whole sentences, are 
frequently taken together as subjects of verbs ; and why 
can't they be taken together as objects? Some gram- 
marians call them substantive phrases and substantive 
clauses. I call them sentential nouns, because they are 
composed of sentences or parts of sentences performing 
the offices of nouns, as subjects or as objects, as predi- 
cates or as nouns in apposition, or in the nominative case 
independent : as, " To see the sun is pleasant." " That you 
have wronged me doth appear in this." "How loved, how 
valued once, avails thee not." " A generous man asks no 
reward for doing his duty.''' " Wouldst thou live a cow- 
ard in thy own esteem, letting / dare not wait upon / 
would?" " The whole duty of man is, to fear God and 
keep his commandments." " The best kind of preaching 
is, to live a Christian life." " To be or not to be, that is the 
question." 

" Earth highest triumph ends in ' Here he lies,' 
And ' Bust to dust' concludes her noblest song." 

" the sweet joy this sentence gives ! 
I know that my Redeemer lives." 

"Know then this truth, (enough for man to know,) 
Virtue alone is happiness below." 

"Tell (for you can) what is it to be wise? 
'Tis but to know how little can be known ; 
To see all oUters 1 faults, and feel our own" 

P. P. Can't we analyze all the words in substantive 
phrases and clauses separately, just as well as to take 
them together as sentential nouns ? 

Dr. IS. If we parse them separately the preceding 
prepositions and transitive verbs will have no objects,. 



SYNTAX. 225 

and the following verbs no subjects : as, " He spends 
his time find money in doing goody " To do good is his 
vocation." " Seneca says, there is no difference between 
possessing a thing and not desiring it." Doing good is here 
the object of in, and to do good, the subject of is. The 
object of says is the whole sentence that follows it, as 
you will see by answering this question : Seneca says 
what? Between has two sentential objects, possessing a 
thing and not desiring it, connected by and. 

M. "Would you parse this sentence as a sentential 
noun ? 

Dr. S. As it is a complete sentence of itself, it may 
be parsed like other sentences. But, after all, we must 
regard it as the object of says, unless we disregard the 
sense. I would, occasionally, parse substantive phrases 
and clauses word by word, to show of what they are 
composed ; and then, to show the true grammatical 
construction of the sentence, parse them as sentential 
nouns. 

R. "When are infinitives and participles taken ab- 
stractly. 

Dr. S. "When they have no subjects : as, " It is more 
blessed to give than to receive." "It is more glorious 
thus to rise than never to have fallen." " The custom of 
walking often in the street produces a habit of idleness." 
" The practice of smoking or chewing tobacco perverts 
the taste, and oftea leads to drinking intoxicating liq- 
uors." Adjectives are sometimes used abstractly with 
abstract infinitives and participles. They then belong 
to no particular noun or pronoun : as, " To be virtuous 
is to be happy." " Whiteness is the state of being 
white." " It is impossible to be truly ivise without be- 
ing good." To he virtuous is a sentential subject, and 
to he happy a sentential predicate after is; and being 
white and being good are sentential nouns, the objects of 
without and of. 

P. Are adjectives ever used as predicates? 

Dr. S. Yes, very often. But Rule 5 does not apply 
to them, because they have no cases. Adjectives when 
15 



226 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

used as predicates, belong to the subject of the preced- 
ing verb : as, " God is wise and good." " I have been 
young, and now / am old." " They were prudent and in- 
dustrious, and soon became rich." " We are glad that 
you have been successful." " Is he honest ?" " The house 
is painted white.' 1 "The smw shines dim." " The cZowcfe 
look dark and heavy." " The air grows cooler." "The 
wind blows damp and chilly." "Ice feels co7c? and 
smooth," "The rose smells sweet." " Your cfo/A is col- 
ored black." "It tastes bitter." u The lights bum blue." 
" And redder yet those ^res shall glow." " How many 
rosy cheeks turn pale /" " To err is human, to forgive di- 
vine." "It is more glorious to save than to destroy.'' 
" To do right is always expedient." "It is never expedi- 
ent to do wrong." An adjective is sometimes placed 
after the object of a verb, to express a quality or attri- 
bute attending the action or resulting from it : as, " He 
found me rich and prosperous, and left me poor and mis- 
erable," " True religion makes us honest, frugal and in- 
dustrious, cheerful, kind and generous." "Virtue renders 
its possessor truly amiable." " Open your hand icide." 
" Color this cloth blue." " Paint the blinds green." An 
adjective sometimes belongs to a complete and inde- 
pendent sentence : as, " Contrary to orders, they pursued 
the enemy across the river." "Agreeable to my promise, I 
send you my portrait and a copy of my poems." 

L. Explain the difference between a predicate noun 
or pronoun, and one that is in apposition with another. 

Dr. S. A predicate noun or pronoun is united to the 
subject that it characterizes or explains by an intransi- 
tive verb, or a transitive verb in the passive voice, 
which generally comes between it and the subject : as, 
" God is love." " Cicero was an orator." "Z7e was chosen 
consid." " It is sown a natural body, it is raised a 
spiritual body." " Ye are my friends." "I am he." 
"It is I" "These are they." " Who art thouV "I 
took you to be a gentleman." "It appears to have been 
a splendid city." 

" From a passire subaltern I bid you lo rise 
The inventor, as well as the printer, of lies." 



SYNTAX. 227 

But an apposition noun or pronoun is added to an- 
other as an explanatory or emphatic term, denoting the 
same person or thing, and is not predicated of it by an 
intervening verb : as, " Cicero the orator defended 
Achias the poet." "I tell you that which you yourselves 
do know." " We ourselves will march." A verb oc- 
casionally intervenes, but not as a copula to unite the 
apposition noun or pronoun to its subject : as, "I will 
go myself." "They must do it themselves.''' That is, 
" I myself will go." "They themselves must do it." 
The same word is sometimes repeated, either with or 
without an additional epithet, for the sake of emphasis : 
as, u I, I, I, myself, can hardly keep the terms of 
my honor precise." -"You, you, you, you rascals, talk 
about your honor!" "They have forsaken me, the 
fountain of living waters, and hewed them out cisterns, 
broken cisterns, that can hold no water." 

Heaven's gates spontaneous open to the powers, 
Heaven's golden gates, kept by the winged hours." 

Here the latter noun or pronoun is in apposition 
with the former. A noun is sometimes in apposition 
with a pronoun ; and a pronoun, sometimes in apposi- 
tion with a noun : as, " When he, the Spirit of Truth, 
is come." "This is the stone which was set at naught 
of you builders.'" " Thou wicked and slothful servant" 
" O Jerusalem ! Jerusalem ! thou that killest the 
prophets." 

not a moment could he brook, 

The generous prince, that suppliant look ! 

A noun or pronoun in apposition with the object of 
a transitive verb in the active voice, becomes a predi- 
cate in the passive voice : as, " They made him Icing ; 
He was made king." " We style Homer the prince of 
poets; Homer is styled the prince of poets." "I 
proved you a liar without calling you one; You were 
proved a liar without being called one." The leading 
term is generally placed before the apposition noun or 
pronoun. But in poetry this order is sometimes in- 
verted : as, " Child of the sun, refulgent Summer 



228 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

comes." Sometimes several nouns in apposition follow 
one another in close succession : as, " My guide, my 
stay, my friend is lost." " Come, gentle Spring! ethe- 
real Mildness! come." "0 excellent interpreter o!l the 
law ! master of antiquity ! corrector and amender of our 
constitution !" 

" happiness ! our being's end and aim ; 

Good, pleasure, ease, content, whate'er tby name !" 

"This royal Uirone of king?, this sceptred isle, 

This earth of majesty, this seat of Mars, 

This other Eden, demi-paradise ; 

This fortress, built by nature for herself, 

Against infection, and the hand of war; 

This happy breed of men, this little world; 

This precious stone set in the silver sea — 

This blessed plot, this earth, this realm, this England, 

This land ot such dear souls, tois dear, dear land, 

Dear for her reputation through the world, 

Iinow leased out." 

J. When is a noun or pronoun in the nominative case 
independent ? 

Dr. S. When it is not the subject of a verb, nor the 
object of a verb or preposition, nor in the possessive 
case, nor in apposition, nor the predicate. Then its case 
depends on no other word, and is therefore independ- 
ent. There are four circumstances under which 
grammarians generally say a noun or pronoun must be 
in the nominative case independent. 1. By direct ad- 
dress: as, " Paul, thou art beside thyself." "I am not 
mad, most noble Festus." " Ye serpents, ye generation 
of vipers !" " Ah, thou that destroyest the temple." 

2. By mere exclamation: as, " O wretched prince!" 
" Oh cruel reverse of fortune !" " Unhappy they! who 
rush into the midst of danger." " Alas, poor Ybrick /" 
"Ah, luckless 77" " Salvation! O the joyful sound!" 

3. By pleonasm: as, "He that is righteous, let him be 
righteous still." " The companions of my youth, where 
are they?" 4. With a participle in a phrase that ex- 
presses a concurrent fact : as, " The door being open, the 
prisoners escaped." " The storm having ceased, I went 
on deck." " She being the only child, the whole estate 



SYNTAX. 229 

is "hers." "We launched, meaning to sail by the coast 
of Asia, one Aristarchus, a Macedonia of Thessalonica, 
being with us." To which we may add the nominative 
case independent by abbreviation, in broken or unfin- 
ished sentences and condensed expressions, such as 
mottoes, superscriptions, inscriptions on monuments 
and signs, directions of letters and merchandise, labels 
on medicine, titles of books, essays, poems, &c. : as, 
" Salvation, and glory, and honor, and power, unto tha 
Lord our God." " Tidings, king." " An eye for an-, 
eye and a tooth for a tooth." "Dent. Chap. 6. Verse 3C. 
Jesus of Nazareth, the King of the Jews." "No Cross- 
no crown? "Essay on Man." " The journey of a day; 
a picture of human life." " Union Hotel." " Boots and: 
shoes." " J. Doolittle & Co." " R. Jones, Esq., Utica t 
K Y." 

R. Is Macedonian in the nominative case independ- 
ent? 

Dr. S. No : its case depends on Aristarchus ; for it 
is in apposition with it. So are serpents and generation 
in apposition with ye, and King in apposition with Jesus. 

P. Is child in the nominative case independent ? 

Dr. S. No : it is a predicate nominative after being, 
referring to the same person that she does. 

W. How can we tell whether two or more anteced- 
ents or subjects are taken together or separately? 

Dr. S. When they are connected by and they are 
taken together, unless they are preceded by each, every, 
or no ; or and is followed by also, likewise, too, or not: as, 
Phebe, Ann, and Ida, have learned their lessons. But 
when they are connected b} r or or nor or as ivell as, or 
connected by and, if they are preceded by each, every, or 
no, or and is followed by also, likewise, too, or not, they 
are taken separately : as, " Ann or Kate has lost her 
book." "Ann, as well as Kate, has lost her book." 
" Neither Phebe, Ann, nor Ida, has learned her lessons." 
" Ann, and also Kate, has learned her lessons." ." Ann, 
and likewise Kate, has recited." "John, and James too, 
was punished." "John, and not James, was punished." 

H. I don't exactly understand yonr illustrations. 



230 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Dr. S. When also, likewise, too or not, is used after 
and, the repetition of the verb is necessarily implied ; 
for, otherwise, the adverb would have no grammatical 
dependence. Consequently, one of the nouns is the sub- 
ject of a verb expressed; and the other, of a verb un- 
derstood ; and therefore they are taken separately, and 
belong to different sentences. These examples are 
equivalent in sense to " Ann has learned her lessons ; 
and Kate has also learned hers." "Ann has recited; 
and Kate has recited likewise." "John ivas punished ; 
and James was punished too." "John was punished; 
and James was not punished." 

M. Can two or more nouns or pronouns be the sub- 
jects of the same verb, and yet be taken separately? 

Dr. tS. I think they can when they are connected by 
or or nor. But when they are connected by as well as, 
one of them is the subject of a verb understood : as, 
"You, as well as I, are liable to err." Here you is the 
subject of are; and lis the subject of am understood; 
thus, " You are liable to err, as well as I am." 

M. I have great respect for your opinion, Dr. Syntax. 
But I can't see how we can think of different subjects 
separately without having a separate thought on each 
subject. "We think, " Ann has lost her book, or Kate 
has lost hers." But for the sake of brevity in language, 
we leave one of these thoughts unexpressed, yet readily 
understood, and say, "Ann or Kate has lost her book." 
We think, "Phebe has not learned her lessons; Ann 
has not learned hers, nor has Ida learned hers." We then 
condense the expression of our thoughts into " Neither 
Phebe, Ann, nor Kate has learned her lessons." Is there 
not a verb understood for every thought that is left un- 
expressed ? 

Dr. S. We'll leave this question open for discussion. 

L. Why are subjects and antecedents that are con- 
nected by and taken separately, when they are preceded 
by each, every, or no ? 

Dr. S. Because these adjectives counteract the effect 
of and, presenting to our view each individual singly : 
as, "Each action, look, and word, produces its effect" 



SYNTAX. 231 

"Every man, woman, and child, was numbered.' 1 '' "No 
beast, no bird, no insect, and no worm, was made in 
vain." 

I. Will you give us an explanation of ellipsis ? 

Dr. S. Ellipsis is an omission of words. Supply the 
words that are omitted in each sentence that I give 
you : I can make you understand it better by example 
than precept. 

M. I can make you understand it better by example 
than i" can make you understand it by precept. 

Dr. /S. Here is an ellipsis : the pronouns, I, you, and it, 
the preposition, by, and the verbs can make and under- 
stand, are omitted. 

I love not man the less, but nature more. 

P. I love not man the less, but I love nature more. 

JR. Here the pronoun /and the verb love are omitted. 

Can the Ethiopian change his skin, or the leopard his 
spots ? 

& Can the Ethiopian change his skin, or can the 
leopard change his spots ? 

W. The verb can change is here omitted. 

Custom is the law of one sort of fools ; and fashion, 
of another. 

J. Custom is the law of one sort of fools ; and fashion 
is the law of another sort of fools. 

0. The verb is. the adjective the, the preposition of 
and the nouns, law, sort, and fools, are omitted. 

They confess his power, wisdom, goodness, and love. 

L. They confess his power, and his wisdom, and his 
Iness, and his love. 

K. The pronoun his and the connective arid are 
omitted. 

Here are beautiful gardens, orchards, fields, and 
groves. 

F. Here are beautiful gardens, andbeaidiful orchards, 
and beautiful fields, and beautiful groves. 

He speaks and writes correctly. 

A. He speaks correctly and writes correctly. 

The sentiment is well expressed by Plato, but much 
better by Solomon than him. 



232 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

J. The sentiment is well expressed by Plato, but it 
is much better expressed by Solomon than it is expressed 
by him. 

An hone?t, civil, well-bred man 

Will not insult me — no other can. 

R. An honest, civil, well-bred man will not insult 
me — no other man can insult me. 

Dr. S. From these examples, you can see that there 
may be an ellipsis of any part of speech. Our com- 
pound sentences are generally more or less elliptical. 
The fewer words we use to express our thoughts, the 
better is our language, if we make them clearly under- 
stood ; for brevity is the soul of eloquence, as well 
as wit. Such words as can be easily supplied by 
the hearer or reader it is better to omit, unless they are 
essential to the harmony, propriety, or strength of the 
sentence. 

R. Eule 15 is as dark as Egypt Mr. Puzzle ex- 
plained it to us yesterday an hour or two, and gave us 
several Greek and Latin illustrations. But the more 
he explained, the darker it grew ; and ever since, I've 
been so puzzled with it that I can't understand it at all. 

Dr. S. This is a very general rule, embracing all 
the principles of syntax that are not embraced by any 
other rule or any of the notes. It is too general to be 
easily understood. A strict observance of this rule re- 
quires us to understand the meaning of all the words 
we use, and to be intimately acquainted with the writ- 
ings of our best authors, so that we can know what is 
sanctioned by the best authority. Read the best books 
that you can get, observe the structure of the sentences, 
and when you find a word that you don't understand, 
consult your dictionary and learn its meaning. As I 
speak a few sentences, watch me closely and correct me, 
if I violate this rule. I set in this chair and learn you 
grammar. 

JR. I sit in this chair and teach you grammar. 

He lays on the floor. He has laid there all night. 

P. He lies on the floor. He has lain there all night. 

She is as old, if not older, than I am. 



SYNTAX. 233 

W. She is as old as I am, if not older. 
He calls around him his wife and the rest of his 
children. 

I. He calls around him his wife and children. 

Violations of Eule I. 
Them that flatter us are often secret enemies. 
Thee must not think too highly of thyself. 
You and me have less experience than them. 
Who tore this book ? Him and her. Who saw them ? 
Me. 

Whom, do you suppose, are to blame ? 
Thou art a much greater loser than me. 

Violations of the Notes to Eule I. 
Note I. 

Two substantives, when they come together, and do 
not signify the same thing, the former must be in the 
genitive case. 

Virtue, however it may be neglected for a time, men 
are so constituted as ultimately to acknowledge and re- 
spect genuine merit. 

This incident, though it appears improbable, yet I 
cannot doubt the author's veracity. 

Man, though he has great variety of thoughts, yet 
they are all within his own breast. 

Note II. 

Grammar was taught me. I was offered a book. 
They are denied the privilege of choosing their rulers. 
Theresa was forbidden the presence of the emperor. 

Violations of Eule II. 
Ye, who were dead, hath he quickened. 
He and they we know, but who are you ? 
The man who he raised from obscurity, is dead. 
Who should I esteem more than the wise and good ? 
He who committed the offense you should correct, 
not I, who am innocent. 

He is an author who I am much delighted with. 
We are still at a loss who civil power belongs to. 



234 ' ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Violations of the Notes to Rule II. 
Note I. 

He that wastes to display may soon want for food. 

False accusations cannot diminish from real merit 

They were refused entrance into, and forcibly driven 
from the house. 

Note II. 

Go, flee thee away into the land of Judah. 

They did not fail to enlarge themselves on the sub- 
ject. 

Haste thee away to the land of the free. 

Is it a fit and decent thing to vie charities ? 

He will one day repent him of such indulgencies. 

They have spent their whole time and pains, to agree 
the sacred with the profane chronology. 

Note III. 

The sun supplies with light and heat the solar sys- 
tem. 

We could not see, without the sun, the beauties of 
creation. 

"We could not discover, for the want of proper tests, 
the quality of the metal. 

He is a friend whom I am highly indebted to. 

The man whom I traveled with, has sold the carriage 
which we rode in during our journey. 

Violations of the Notes to Rule III. 
Note I. 
Your ancestors virtue is not yours. 
His brothers offense will not condemn him. 
Asa, his heart was perfect with the Lord. 
These book's are our's ; and those are theirs'. 

So shall Minerva learn to fear our ire, 

Nor dare to combat her's and Nature's Sire. 

Note II. 
Adam's and Eve's first son was a murderer. 
Cain and Abel's disposition differed greatly. 
Was Cain's and Abel's father present ? 



SYNTAX. • 235 

Peter's, John's and Andrew's occupation, was that of 
fishermen. 

This was my father's, mother's, and uncle's advice. 

This measure gained the king, as well as the people's 
approbation. 

I like Murray, Brown, and Bullions' grammar better 
than Alexander, Sherman, Smith, or Kirkham's. 

I had the physician, the surgeon, and the apothe- 
cary's assistance. 

This is Paul's, the apostle's advice. 

I left it at Smith's, the bookseller's, and stationer's. 

Not only the counsel's, and attorney's, but the judge's 
opinion also favored his cause. 

I will not for David's, thy father's sake. 

This palace had been the grand sultan's, Mahomet's. 

He took refuge at the governor, the kings's represent- 
ative's. 

Whose works are these ? They are Cicero, the most 
eloquent of men's. 

Note III. 

She married my son's wife's brother. 

The tree is known by the fruit of it. 

The general, in the army's name, published a decla- 
ration. 

The world's government is not left to chance. 

That landscape is a picture of my father. 

This is my wife's brother's partner's house. 

The severity of the distress of the son of the king 
touched the nation. 
• Gravitation was a discovery of Sir Isaac Newton. 

It was necessary to have both the physician's and the 
surgeon's advice. 

This picture of the king's does not much resemble 
him. 

These pictures of the king were sent to him from 
Italy. 

This estate of the corporation's is much encumbered. 

This house of the governor's is very commodiousr 



266 ' ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

The keeping of the day of the Lord is the duty of a 
Christian. 

He emulated Caesar's glory, the greatest general of 
antiquity. 

These psalms are David's, the king, priest,' and 
prophet of the Jewish people. 

This is Paul's advice, the Christian hero, and great 
apostle of the Gentiles. 

They implicitly obeyed the protector's, as they 'called 
him, imperious mandate. 

They very justly condemned the prodigal's, asjhe was 
called, senseless and extravagant conduct. 

Note IV. 
The ancient poet's style was bold and free. 
Ye should be subject for conscience's sake. 
If ye suffer for righteousness's sake, happy are ye. ' 
Moses' rod was turned into a serpent. 
Do you like Pierce' grammar as well as Bullions's. 
And, dost thou sleep, oh Atrens's son ? 

Violations op Eule IV. 

My cousins, them that you saw in Boston, are dead. 
He shot Booth, the assassin, he that killed Lincoln. 
It was Peter the hermit, him that incited the crusade. 
I have seen the teacher, she that you met in Troy. 

Violations of Eule V. 

It was not him ; it was me. Is it thee ? 
Whom, do you suppose, it is ? Was it her ? 
Who do you fancy it to be? These are them. 
Whom do men say that I am ? Is it me ? 
He is not the person whom he appeared to be. 
Who did lie represent himself to be ? 

Violations of Eule VI. 

Her being extravagant her property was wasted, 
Him that is holy let him be holy still. 
They were all very attentive, him and her excepted. 
My enemies have triumphed ! and me — what can I 
do?' 



SYNTAX. 237 

Then all thy gifts and graces we display, 
Thee, only thee, directing all our way. 

The bleating sheep with, my complaints agree; 
Tliem parched with heat, and me inflamed by thee. 

Violations of Kule VII. 

The horse appears to know its master's will. 

One ought not to think too favorably of ourselves. 

The silk-worm, having spun its task, lays its eggs and 
dies. 

Rebecca took goodly raiment, and put them on Jacob. 

Every man must think and act for themselves. 

Take handfuls of ashes, and sprinkle it toward 
heaven. 

Why is our language less refined than those of Italy, 
Spain, or France. 

There is a spirit in man : and the inspiration of the 
Almighty giveth them understanding. 

Violations of the Notes to Rule VII. 

Note I. 

When the nation complains, the rulers should listen 
to their voice. 

The multitude eagerly pursue pleasure as its chief 
good. 

The crowd was so great that the judges with diffi- 
culty made their way through them. 

The committee were divided in its sentiments ; and 
it has referred the business to the general meeting. 

The people rejoice in that which should give it sor- 
row. 

Note II. 

Piety and virtue render its possessor truly honorable. 

If you desire tranquility and peace, seek it not at 
court. 

Honor and fame, what is it, but vanity and vexation 
of spirit ? 

Sincerity and truth are like pure gold : it loses noth- 
ing in the crucible of free discussion, or the furnace of 
affliction. 



238 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Note III. 

Sarah, Phebe, Ann, or Ida, lost their gloves. 

Neither Kobert, John, nor William, learned their 
lessons. 

Neither wealth nor honor can confer happiness on 
their votaries. 

Man is not such a machine as a clock or a watch, 
which move merely as they are moved. 

Despise no infirmity of mind or body, nor any con- 
dition of life, for they may be your own lot. 

Every plant, and every flower, proclaims their 
Maker's praise. 

The good man, and the sinner too, will have their re- 
ward. 

Every thought, every word, and every action, will 
be brought into judgment, whether they be good or 
evil. 

No king, no noble, and no peasant, can escape their 
just reward. 

Note IV. 

Thou and he, as well as they, have disappointed their 
friends. 

You and she, not John and James, neglected their 
studies. 

He and Ida, as well as you, must answer for your- 
selves. 

You and I, and also he and she, must share the blame 
between them. 

Note Y. 

Either thou or I am mistaken in our judgment. 

Neither Charles nor Emma has performed their tasks. 

Must we, or you, or they, relinquish our claim? 

Have you, or John, or Sarah lost your books ? 

I, and not John nor Sarah, have lost our books. 

Our laws make the king, as well as his subjects, re- 
sponsible for their actions. 

The teacher, and not the children, neglected their 
duty. 



SYNTAX. 239 

I, as well as thou, must be judged according to our 
deeds. 

Every man, woman and child, must account for them- 
selves. 

Note VL 

Ye are the children of them which killed the 
prophets. 

Thy Father which seeth in secret shall reward thee 
openly. 

There was a certain rich man, which had a steward. 

The exercise of reason appears as little in these 
sportsmen, as in the beasts whom they sometimes hunt, 
and by whom they are sometimes hunted. 

Note VII. 
* Who is this who cometh from the north ? 

Who who has any sense of religion would argue thus ? 

The woman and the estate which .became his portion, 
were too great for his moderation. 

They are the same persons who assisted us yesterday. 

He was the greatest madman whom the world ever 
saw. 

Humility is the most amiable virtue which we can 



Animals which have four feet are called quadrupeds. 
The child whom we have just seen is wholesomely 

He is a good dancer, which is all which he aspires to. 

Note VIII. 
Thou who has been a witness of the fact, canst re- 
late it. 

What art thou, speak, that on designs unknown, 
While others sleep, thus range the camp alone ? 
Just to thy word, in every thought sincere ; 
Who knew no wish but what the world might hear. 
Accept these grateful tears : for thee they flow ; 
For thee, that ever felt another's wo. 

Note IX. 
I am the teacher who adopt that sentiment, and who 
maintains the propriety of such measures. 



240 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

I perceive that thou art a pupil who possesses bright 
parts, but who hast cultivated them but little. 

I am the Lord thy God, who teach eth thee to profit 
and who lead thee in the way thou shouldst go. 

Thou art he who breathest on the earth with the 
breath of spring, and who covereth it with verdure and 
beauty. 

Note X. 

The man that met you, and to whom you spoke, is 
my father. 

They are men who know their rights, and that will 
maintain them. 

He that preserves me, to whom I owe my being, 
whose I am, and whom I serve, is eternal. 

Kespect thyself, if you would have others respect 
thee. 

Though you are great, yet thou art but a man. 

You draw the inspiring breath of ancient song, 
Till nobly rises emulous thy own. 

Note XL 

Here are four books : take either of them. 

Neither of the three will answer the purpose. 

Nadab and Abihu took either of them his censer. 

All of us will received our penny. 

I will give both of you a book. 

Wealth and poverty are both temptations : this ex- 
cites pride ; that, discontent. 

Some think they have a clear conscience, who are 
clear of conscience. 

They attacked Northumberland's house, whom they 
put to death. 

If we trace a youth from the earliest period of life, 
who has been well educated, we shall perceive the wis- 
dom of the maxims here recommended. 
Note XII. 

Errors in speaking often spring from those in think- 
ing. 

Many are captivated by the power of eloquence who 
do not know wherein it consists. 



SYNTAX. 241 

Men look with an evil eye upon the good that is in 
others, and think that their reputation obscures them, 
and their commendable qualities stand in their light; 
and therefore they do what they can to cast a cloud 
over them, that the bright shining of their virtues may 
not obscure them. 

Violations of the Notes to Kule YIIL 

NOTE I. 

I have not traveled this twenty years. 

I am not recommending these kind of sufferings. 

Those set of books was a valuable present. 

Charles was extravagant; and by these means be- 
came poor. 

Joseph was industrious, frugal, and discreet ; and by 
this means obtained property and reputation. 

Note II. 

Every earthly happiness is short and transitory. 
Reason was given to a man to control his passions. 
The king has conferred on him the title of a duke. 
The light and the worthless kernels will float. 
Not a word was uttered, nor sign given. 
True happiness is not the meteor that occasional 
glares. 

Cicero was a greater orator than a poet. 

She has two roses ; a red and white one. 

I have carefully studied the old and new Testament 

Note III. 

I bought a fine suit of clothes, an excellent span of 
horses, a silver-plated set of harness, and a new splen- 
did carriage. 

Have you any black ladies' gloves, and red children's 
stockings ? 

They are good-for-nothing, idle, shiftless, lazy fellows. 

He is a very good, learned, judicious, old man. 

They are generous, honest, faithful, and kind. 
16 



242 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Note TV. 

A ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure. 
An hundred thousand dollars were expended. 
It is an useless waste of time and money. 
He is a upright man such an one as we delight to 
honor. 

iSTOTE V. 

He speaks very slow and deliberate. 

Such seeds are likely to take soonest and deepest 
root. 

Such an amiable disposition will secure universal 
regard. 

He speaks very fluent, reads excellent, but does not 
think very coherent. 

He was extreme prodigal, and his property is near 
exhausted. 

The sun shines brightly, and the air feels warmly. 

The sky looks hazily, and the stars shine dimly. 

The wind blows freshly and coolly. Ice feels coldly. 

The rose smells sweetly. The moon runs highly. 

Note VI. 

Iron is more useful than all the metals. 

Eve was the fairest of all her daughters. 

He is the stronger of the two, but not the wiser. 

Covetousness enters deeper into the soul than any 
vice. 

Eussia is larger than any empire in the world. 

China has the greatest population of any other nation. 

Jupiter is larger than any planet in the solar system. 

Of .all the other planets Jupiter is the largest. 

I understood him the best of all the other speakers. 

Of all other writings the Scriptures are the most 
valuable. 

The sun is the largest of all the planets. 

This nation noble has, of all others, admitted fewer 
corruptions. 



SYNTAX 243 

Note VII. 

This was the most unkindest cut of all. 

Hers is the most sweetest voice in the grove. 

It is more easier to build two chimneys than to main- 
tain one. 

The tongue, like a race-horse, runs the faster the 
lesser weight it carries. 

Note VIIL 

These two lines are more parallel than those. 

His assertion. was truer than that of his opponent 

The quarrel became so universal and national. 

He celebrates the church of England as the most 
perfect. 

"Virtue confers the supremest dignity on man ; I and 
should be his chiefest desire. 

Your picture is more perfect than mine, and hers the 
most perfect of all. 

Ours is the best and the rightest government on 
earth. 

Your work is so perfect that I will not attempt to 
improve it. 

The pleasures of the understanding are more prefer- 
able than those of the imagination, or of sense. 
Violations of Rule IX. 

We was invited. Where was you last night. 

Thou sees how little has been done. 

A variety of blessings have been conferred upon us. 

Thou should love thy neighbor as thyself. 

There was more imposters than one. 

The ship, with all her crew and passengers, were lost 

In piety and virtue consist the happiness of man. 

The side A, with the sides B and C, compose the 
triangle. 

In him were happily blended true dignity with soft- 
ness of manners. 

A conformity of inclinations and qualities prepare us 
for friendship. 

In vain our flocks and fields increase our store, 
When our abundance make us wish for more. 



244 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Violations of the Notes to Eule IX. 

Note I. 
The mob were soon dispersed by the police. 
A large fleet were seen sailing up the channel. 
The fleet has all arrived and every ship is moored. ' 
When the nation boil the scum must rise. 
The people is insulted and betrayed. 
The audience was very attentive and respectful. 

Note II. 

To do wrong and then deny it, are a double sin. 

To fear God and keep his commandments, are our 
whole duty. 

How loved, how valued once, avail thee not. 

When, where, and what to speak, are the essence of 
politenesss. 

Note III. 

Time and chance happeneth to them all. 

Sincerity and truth forms the basis of every virtue. 

In unity consists the welfare and security of every 
society. 

Out of the same mouth proceedeth blessing and 
cursing. 

Their love, and their hatred, and their envy, is now 
perished. 

So was also James and John, the sons of Zebedee. 

Where envy and strife is, there is confusion and 
every evil work. 

Patience and diligence, like faith, removes moun- 
tains. 

His politeness and good disposition was entirely 
changed. 

Wisdom, virtue, happiness, dwells with the golden 
mediocrity. 

Much does human pride and self-complacency require 
correction. 

The planetary system, boundless space, and the im- 
mense ocean, affects the mind with sensations of aston- 
ishment 



SYNTAX. 



245 



What signifies the counsel and care of preceptors,, 
when youth think they have no need of assistance ? 

Humility and love, whatever obscurities may involve 
religious tenets, constitutes the essence of true religion. 

Eeligion and virtue, our best support and highest 
honor, confers on the mind principles of noble inde- 
pendence. 

Note TV. 

Death or some worse misfortune soon divide them.. 

"William, John, or Robert, have broken this slate. 

Neither Ida, Julia, Phebe, Ann, nor Kate, were there: 

The teacher, and not the child, are to blame. 

Every man, woman, and child, are interested in our 
schools. 

Every leaf, every twig, every drop of water, teem 
with life. 

Not only his estate, his reputation too have suffered. 

The king, as well as the queen, were present. 

Not only the king, but the queen also were beheaded. 

The king, and also the queen, have read your poems. 

The king, and the queen too, were insulted by the 
mob. 

Each day, each hour and minute, have a present, 
past and future. 

No beast, no bird, no insect, and no particle of mat- 
ter, were created for itself alone. 

No bandit fierce, no tyrant mad with pride, 
No caverned hermit, rest self-satisfied. 

Note Y. 

You or I are to be the speaker. 

Neither the sailors nor the captain was saved. 

Both of the scholars, or one of them at least, was 
present. 

You, or I, or John, are entitled to the premium. 

The drunkard, and not his wife and children, are to 
blame. 

Neither you nor I are responsible for our friends. 

The captain, and the sailors likewise, were intox- 
icated. 



246 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The president, as well as the people, are amenable to 
law. 

Note VI. 

This celebrated philosopher, patriot, and statesman, 
like many other eminent men, were of humble origin. 

This prodigy of learning, this scholar, critic, and 
antiquarian, were entirely destitute of breeding and 
civility. 

That superficial scholar and critic, like some renowned 
critics of our own, have furnished most decisive proofs, 
that they knew not the characters of the Hebrew lan- 
guage. 

The saint, the father, and the husband, pray. 

Note VII. 

The positions were, as appears, incontrovertible. 

He was a man whose inclinations led him to be cor- 
rupt, and had great abilities to manage the business. 

These we have extracted from an historian of un- 
doubted credit, and are the same that were practiced. 

These curiosities we have imported from China, and 
are similar to those which, some time ago, we brought 
from Africa. 

Will martial flames for ever fire thy mind, 
And never, never be to Heaven resigned ? 

Violation or the Notes to Kule X. 
Note I. 
Joshua bid the sun and moon to stand still. 
I could feel the earth to shake beneath my feet 
Dare they to disobey me, or to question my authority ? 
The multitude wondered, when they saw the lame to 
walk, and the blind to see. 

Note II. 
I have commenced to. study grammar. 
When you stop to smoke, I will leave off to tipple. 
I could not help to laugh heartily at his drollery. 
How can we forbear to hate what is odious ? 
I abhor to be teased, and I can not avoid to show it 



SYNTAX 247 

Note III. 

This was betraying of the trust reposed in him. 

In forming of his sentences he was very exact. 

By his studying the Scriptures he became wise. 

"When Caius did any thing unbecoming his dignity. 

Is such conduct as this becoming a gentleman? 

We can not be wise and good without our taking 
pains. 

Note IV. 

By admitting the premises the conclusion is estab- 
lished. 

By rising early and living temperately our health is 
preserved. 

By walking often in the streets a habit of idleness is 
acquired. 

Looking out of my window, the whole fleet can be 
seen. 

It is not my intention to dictate you. 

It is our expectation to secure universal liberty. 

It affords great pleasure to assist my friends. 

Note V. 

Burglary is breaking into a house with felonious in- 
tent. 

Taking another's property secretly is theft 

I forgot telling you of our riding on the cars. 

It is hard teaching old dogs new tricks. 

Doing right is always expedient. I intend paying 
you. 

Drinking moderately very often leads to intemper- 
ance. 

A good man asks no reward for to do his duty. 

His disobeying orders was the cause of our being de- 
feated. 

She was brutally murdered, as she stood over her 
wounded son to plead for his life. 

A man's being rich does not make him happy, nor 
does his being poor make him miserable. 

The time of his issuing the emancipation proclama- 
tion arrived. 



248 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

What is the cause of your being so angry ? 
Do you doubt them to be true and sincere ? 
I do not believe them to be in earnest. 
We should not be like many persons, to depreciate 
the virtues we do not possess. 

Note VI. 

He would have went with us, had he been invited. 

He was greatly heated and drunk with avidity. 

The French language is spoke in every state in Eu- 
rope. 

He heapt up riches, but past his time miserably. 

He writes as the best authors would have wrote, had 
they writ on the same subject. 

A second deluge learning thus o'errun : 

And the monks finished what the Goths begun. 

Violation of Eule XI. 

I have no occasion of their services. 

They are, at present, resolved of doing their duty. 

Her sobriety is no derogation to her understauding. 

She has an abhorrence to all deceitful conduct 

He was accused with having acted unfairly. 

This is a principle in unison to our nature. 

Many ridiculous practices have been brought in 
vogue. 

Though conformable with custom,, it is not warrant- 
able. 

He accused the ministers for betraying the Dutch. 

That boy is known under the name of the idler. 

Be particular in speaking to the following points. 

I do likewise dissent with the examiner. 

Their conduct was agreeable with their profession. 

We shall write up stairs to-day, and down stairs to- 
morrow. 

Violations of the Notes to Eule XI. 
Note I. 
From whence come wars and fightings among you? 
He could not forbear from appointing the pope. ■ 
They were a considerable distance from home. 



SYNTAX. 249 

His presents were accepted of by his friends. 

I live opposite the Park. He was banished England. 

The book is approved of by all who understand it. 

Note II. 

I wrote to, and advised him to come home. 

They broke into, and drove my family from the house. 

Yon can see how the world goes, with half an eye. 

He was guided by interests always different from, 
sometimes contrary to, those of the community. 

He blew out his brains, after bidding his wife fare- 
well, with a shot gun. 

These verses were written by a young man who has 
long lain in his grave, for his own amusement. 

Does that boy know whom he speaks to ? Whom 
does he offer such language to ? 

Violations op the Notes to Eule XII. % 

Note L- 

These things should be never separated. 

William nobly acted, though he was unsuccessful. 

He has been generally reckoned an honest man. 

We always should prefer our duty to our pleasure. 

It is impossible continually to be at work. 

Instead of looking contemptuously down on the 
crooked in mind or in body, we should look up thank- 
fully to God, who has made us better. 

My opinion was given on rather a cursory perusal of 
the book. 

The women contributed all their rings and jewels 
voluntarily to assist the government. 

We are apt to be engrossed and overcome totally by 
present events. 

. Yice creeps always by degrees, and twines around us 
insensibly those concealed fetters, by which we are com- 
pletely bound, at last. 

He was determined to invite back the king, and to 
call together his friends. 

Note II. 
Never no imitator grew up to his author. 



250 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The king nor the queen was not at all deceived. 

I can not, by no means, admit your excuse. 

There can not be nothing more insignificant than 
vanity. 

I have received no information on the subject, neither 
from him nor from his friends. 

Neither riches, nor honor, nor no such perishing 
goods, can satisfy the desires of an immortal spirit 

Note III. 
Ask me never so much dowry and gift. 
Never sovereign was so beloved by the people. 
Whither have they been since they left the city. 

Violations or the Notes to Kule XIII. 

Note I. 

Such was his disposition as nobody could please him. 

As far as I can judge, the book is well written. 

Neither the cold or the fervid are formed for friend- 
ship. 

The dog in the manger would not eat the hay him- 
self, nor suffer the ox to eat it. 

There was something so amiable, and yet so piercing 
in his look, as affected me, at once, with love and terror. 

What else are you but a robber ? 

Have you no other arguments but these? 

Dryden was so great a poet as Cowper, but not as 
good a man. 

Let such who censure others be careful of their own 
conduct. 

His character is such as I can not recommend him. 

Grermany ran the same risk as Italy had done. 

It is neither capable of pleasing the understanding, 
or the imagination. 

Note II. 
We were afraid lest the ship might run aground 
He has little of the scholar than the name. 
I have no doubt but all the planets are inhabited. 
She could not believe but what he was innocent. 



SYNTAX. 251 

The resolution was not the less fixed, that the secret 
was as yet communicated to very few. 

It was no sooner proposed but he withdrew to con- 
sider it. 

He gained nothing further by his speech but only to 
be commended for his eloquence. 

He opposed the most remarkable corruptions of the 
church of Eome, so as that his doctrines were embraced 
by great numbers. 

Violations of Rule XIY. 

The more I see of his conduct, I like him better. 

These counsels were, the dictates of virtue, and the 
dictates of true honor. 

Avarice and cunning may acquire an estate; but 
avarice and cunning cannot gain friends. 

I gladly shunned who gladly fled from me. 

He has an affectionate brother, and an affectionate 
sister. 

The people of this country possess a healthful cli- 
mate and soil. They enjoy also a free constitution and 
laws. 

The anxious man is the votary of riches ; the negli- 
gent, of pleasure. 

This intelligence not only excited our hopes, but 
fears too. 

His reputation and his estate were both lost by gam- 
ing. 

The captain had several men died of the scurvy. 

He is not only sensible and learned, but is religious 
too. 

His honor, interest, religion, were all embarked in 
this undertaking. 

This is it men mean distributive justice, and is prop- 
erly termed equity. 

When so good a man as Socrates fell a victim to the 
madness of the people, truth, virtue, religion, fell with 
him. 

The fear of death, nor hope of life, could make him 
submit to a dishonest action. 



252 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The temper of him who is always in the bustle of 
the world, will be often ruffled, and be often disturbed. 

How a seed grows up into a tree, and the mind acts 
upon the body, are m} 7 steries we cannot explain. 

Violations of Eule XV. 

The garment was decently formed, and sewn very 
neatly. 

The banks were broke down, and the country over- 
flown. 

It is difficult for him to speak three sentences to- 
gether. 

I will be ruined, unless you shall help me. 

My friend was so ill that he could not set up at all, 
but was obliged to lay continually in bed. 

He died with violence ; for he was killed by a sword. 

When they had kindled a fire in the midst of the 
hall, and were set down together, Peter set down 
among them. Galileo discovered the telescope ; Her- 
vey invented the circulation of the blood. 

A traveler observes the most striking object he sees ; 
a general remarks all the motions of his enemy. 

Disputing should always be so managed as to remem- 
ber tnat the end of it is truth. 

A hermit is rigorous in his life; a judge, austere in 
his sentences. 

We have enlarged our family and expenses ; and in- 
creased our garden and orchard. 

A candid man avows his mistakes, and is forgiven ; 
a patriot acknowledges his opposition to a bad minister, 
and is applauded. 

By proper reflection we may be taught to mend what 
is erroneous and defective. 

The good man is not overcome by disappointment, 
when that which is mortal, passes away ; when that 
which is mutable, dies ; and when that which he knew 
to be transient, begins to change. 

We speak that we do know, and testify that we have 
seen. 

She is a better reader, but not so good a writer as Ida. 



SYNTAX. 253 

Several alterations and additions have been made to 
the work. 

This edition is essentially different and superior to 
the first. 

Iron is as useful and even more useful than gold. 

The deaf man, whose ears were opened, and his 
tongue loosened, doubtless glorified the great Physician. 

The court of chancery frequently mitigates and 
breaks the teeth of the common law. 

By intercourse with wise and experienced persons, 
who know the world, we may improve and rub off the 
rust of a private and retired education. 

No person was every so perplexed, or sustained the 
mortifications, as he has done to-day. 

The intentions of some of these philosophers, nay, of 
many, might and probably were good. 

Groves, fields, and meadows, are at any season of 
the year, pleasant to look upon ; but never so much as 
in the opening of the spring. 

CORRECTIONS OF FALSE SYNTAX UNDER EACH RULE 
AND NOTE. 

EULE I. 

They that flatter. TJiou must Dot thiok. You and I have less 
experience than they. He and she, I. Who ? Than I. 

Notes to Eule I. 

Note 1. When two substantives come together. However virtue mav 
be neg'ected. Though this incident appears improbable. Though man 
has great variety of thoughts. 2. 7 was taught grammar. A book was 
offered me. The privilege of choosing their rulers is denied them. The 
presence of the emperor was forbidden Theresa. 

Eule IT. 

You who were dead, Him and them we know. Whom he raised. 
Whom should I esteem ? Him — not me. With whom. To whom. 

Notes to Eule II. 

1. He that wastes his money to displa\s his riches may soon want food. 
False accusatioos can not diminish real merit. They were refused en- 
trance in o the house and forcibly driven from it. 2. Flee away. To en- 
large on the subject. Haste awav. To vie with charities. Repent ot. 
To m ike the sacred chrouo'oay agree with the orofare. 3. The sun sup- 
plies the solar system with light and heat. Without the sua we could 



254 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

not see the beauties of creation. For the want of proper teats, we could 
Dot discover the quality of the metal. To whom I am highly indebted. 
With whom I traveled — in which we rode. 

Notes to Rule III. 

1. Your ancestor's — yours. His brother's offense. Asa's heart. Ours. 
Theirs. Hers. 2. Adam and Eve's first son. Cain's and Abel's disposition. 
Cain and Abel's father? Peter, John, and Andrew's occupation. My father, 
mother, and uncle's advice. The king's. Murray's, Brown's, and Bul- 
lions' grammar — Alexander's, Sherman's, Smith's, or Kirkharr.'s. The 
physician's, the surgeon's, and the apothecary's assistance. Paul the 
apostle's advice. The bookseller and stationer. The counsel. For David 
thy father's sake. The grand sultan Mahomet's. At the governor's, the 
king's representative. They are Cicero's, the most eloquent ol men. 3. 
The brother of my son's wife, or my son's brother in-law. By its fruit. 
In the name of the army. The government of the world. My father's 
picture. This house belongs to the partner of my wife's brother. The 
severe distress of the king's son. One of Sir Isaac Newton's discoveries. 
The advice of the physician and the surgeon. This picture of the king. 
These pictures of the king's. This estate of the corporation. The gov- 
ernor's house. The keeping of the lard's day. The glory of Casar. 
Thes^arethe psalms of David. This is the advice of Paul. The im- 
perious mandate of the protector. The senseless aud extravagant con- 
duct of the prodigal. 4. Poets' style. Conscience' sake. Righteousness 1 
sake. Moses's rod. Pierce's grammar — Bullions'. Alrens' son. 

Rule IV. 

They that you saw in Boston. Him that killed Lincoln. He that ex- 
cited the crusade. Her that you met in Troy. 

Rule V. 

It was not he ; it was I. Is it thou ? Who, do you suppose, it is ? 
Was it she? Whom do you fancy it to be? These are Utcy. Who do 
men sav that I am ? Is it I? He is not the person who he appeared to 
be. Whom did represent himself to be ? 

Rule YI. 

She being extravagant. He that is holy. He and she excepted. And 
i"— what can I do ? Thou, only thou, directing. They parched with 
heat, and /inflamed by thee. 

Rule VII. 

His master's will. Of one's se 7 f Her task — her eggs. And put it on 
Jacob. For himself Sprinkle them. That of Italy. Giveth him. 

Notes to Rule YII. 

1. Its voice. Their chief good. Through it. Their sentiments — they 
have referred the business. Should give them sorrow. 2. Their pos- 
sessor. Seek them not. What are they? They lose nothing. 3. Her 
gloves. His lessons. Its votaries. Wnich moves merely as it is moved. 
It may be. Its Maker's praise. His reward. Whether it be good or 



SYNTAX. 255 

evil. His just reward. 4. Your friends. Your studies. For themselves. 
Between us. 5. Either thou art mistaken in thy judgment, or I am in 
mine. Neither has Charles performed his task, nor Emma, hers. Must 
we relinquish our claim ? or you, yours ? or thev, theirs ? Have you lost 
your books ? or has John lost his? or Sarah, hers? My books. His ac- 
tions. His duty. My deeds. Every man must account for himself/ 
and so must every woman, and every child. 6. Whob'iYled the prophets. 
Who seeth iu secret. Who had a steward. Which they sometimes 
hunt, and by which they are sometimes hunted. t l. That cometh ? 
That has anv sense ? That became his portion. That assisted us. 
That the world ever saw. That we can possess. That have four leet. 
That we have just seen. All that he aspires to. 8. Thou who hast been. 
Eangest* or dost range the camp alone. Who knewest* or didst know no 
wish. That ever feltest* or didst feel. 9. I, who adopt that sentiment, 
and who maintain, &c, am the teacher. But who has cultivated. Who 
leadelh thee. Who breathes on the earth — and who covers it. 10. Who 
met you. Who will maintain them. He who preserves me. Respect 
thyself, if thou wouldst have others respect thee. You are but a man. 
Your own. 11. Take any of them. None of the three. Each of them. 
Each of us will receive his penny. Each of you. That excites pride; 
this, discontent. Some, who are clear of conscience. The house of 
Northumberland. If, from the earliest period of life, we trace a youth 
who has been well educated. 12. Errors in thinking. Many who do not 
know wherein eloquence con?ists, are captivated by its power. We look 
with an evil eye uoon the aood that is in other?, and think that their repu- 
tation obscures us, and their commendable qualities stand in our light; 
and therefore we do what wecan to cast a cloud over them; that the 
bright shining of their virtues may not obscure us. 

Notes to Eule VIII. 

1. These twenty years. This kind. That set. By this means. By 
lliesc means. 2. All earthly happiuess. Reason was given to man. 
The title of duke. The light and worthless kernels Nor a sigu given. 
A meteor. Thau poet. A red and a white one. The old and the new 
Testament. 3. I bought a suit of fine clothes, a span of excellent horses, 
a set of silver-plated harness, and a splendid new carriage. Black gloves 
for ladies, and red stockings for chi.dren ? They are lazy, idle, shiftless, 
good-for-nothing fellows. He is a very learned, judicious, good old man. 
They are faithful, honest, kind and generous. 4. An ounce. A hun- 
dred thousand. A useless waste. An upright man — such a one. 5 
Slowly and deliberately. The earliest and deepest root. So amiable a 
disposition. Very fluently — excellently — coherently. Extremely prodigil — 
nearly exhausted. I'he sun shines briaht, and the air feels warm The 
skv looks hazt/, and tiie stars shine dim. The wind blows fresh and cool. 
Ice feels cold. The rose smells sweet. The moon raws high. 6. (9/all the 
metals iron is the most useful. Eve was fairer than anv of her daughters. 
Be is the strotigest of the two. but not the wisest. Deeper into the soul 
than any other vice, or the deepest of all vices. Larger thau any other 
empire, or the largest empire iu the world. A greater population than 

* Strict grammatical propriety and melodv ore bere at variance. Melodv claims 
a poetic license to disobey old Dt Syntax, wbich is generally allowed by critics, 



256 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

any other nation, or the greatest population of all nations. The largest 
plaDet in the sol<tr system. Oi all the planets. Jupiter is the largest The 
best of all tbe speakers. Of all writings, tbe Scriptures are tbe most val- 
uable. Larger than any of tbe planets. Fewer corruptions than any 
other nation. 7. The unkindest cut. Tbe sweetest voice. It is easier. 
The hss weight. 8. Nearer parallel. Nearer true. So general. Tbe 
nearest perfect. Supreme dignity — chief desire. Nearer perfect than 
mine — the nearest perfect of all. The best government on eartb, and the 
nearest right. So nearly perfect. Preferable to those. 

KULE IX. 

We were invited. Where were you ? Thou seest. Has been conferred. 
Thou shouldst love. There were. Was lost. Consists. Composes. Was 
happily blended. Prepares. Makes us wish. 

Notes to Kule IX. 

1. Was soon dispersed. Was seen. Have all arrived. Tbe nation 
boils. Are insulted. The audience were. 2. Is a double sin. Is our 
whole duty. Avails thee not. is the essence of politeness. 3. Happen. 
Form. Consist. Proceed. Are now perished. So were. Where envy 
and strife are, there are. Remove mountains. IFere entirely changed. 
Dwell. Ho require. Affect the mind. What signify? Constitute. 
Confer on the mind. 4. Soon divides them. Has broken. Was there. 
Is to blame. Is interested. Teems wi'h life. Has suffered. Was pres- 
ent. Was beheaded. Has read. Was insulted. Has. Was created. 
Pests self-satisfied. 5. You are to be the speaker or I am. Neither the 
captain nor the sailors were saved, or neither were the sadors saved nor 
was \he captain. Both of the scholars were present, or one of them at 
least. You arc entitled to the premium, or I am, or John It. The 
drunkard is to blame, and not his wife and children. Neil her are you re- 
sponsible tor your friends nor am I for mine.. The captain was intoxi- 
cated, and 'he sailors likewise. Is amenable to law. 6. Was of bumble 
origin. IFas entirelv destitute. Has furnished most decisive proofs 
that he knew. Prays. 7. As it appears. And wlio had great abilites. 
And they are the same. And they are similar. And wilt thou never be 
to Heaven resigned ? 

Notes to Kule X. 

1. Stand still. I could feel the earth shake. Dare they disobey me, 
or question my authority ? When they saw the lame walk, and the blind 
see. 2. Commenced studyh g. Stop smoking— leave off tippling. I 
could not help laughing. Jsuaar hating. I abhor being teased — avoid 
sliowing it. 3. This was a beiraviug of the tru-t. In forming his sen- 
tences. By studying the Scripture?. Unbecoming to his dignity. Be- 
coming to a gentleman ? Without taking pains. 4. We establish the 
conclusion We preseive our health. IFe acquire a habit. I can see 
the whole fleet. I do not intend to dictate you. Wc expect to secure 
universal liberty. Affords me great plea°ure. 5. To break into a house 
with felonious intent is burglary. To take another's property secretly is 
theft. I forgot to tell you of our ride on the cars. It is hard to teach 
old dogs. To do right is always expedient. I intend to pay you. Mod- 



SYNTAX. 257 

erate drinking very often leads to intemperance. For doing hi3 duty. 
His disobedience to orders — our defeat. Pleading for his 1 fe. A roan's 
riches — hh poverty. The time for him to issue the emancipation procla- 
mation arrived. Why are you so angtv ? Do you doubt their truth and 
sincerity I do not believe that they are in earnes*. W/io deweciate the 
vir ues they do not possess. 6. Be would have gone. Drank w'.th 
avidity. Is spoken. Heapedwg, — passed. Would have written, had they 
written. Thus o'er ran — began. 

RULE XL 

Occasion for. Resolved on. Deroscation/ro?«. Abhorrence of. Ac- 
cused of. Unison with. Have been brought into vogue. Oontoimable 
to. Of betraying die Du'ch. By he name cf the Idler. On the lollop- 
ing points. Dissent from. Agreeable to. Above stair?, and below 
stairs. 

Notes to Rule XL 

1. Whence come wars. He could not foibear appointing the pnpe. 
Thev were at a considerable distance Accepted by bis triends. Oppo- 
site to the Purk. Banished from England. Aporoved by all. 2. I 
wrote to him. Tliey broke mta the house. You can see with half an 
eye. Always different from those of the community, sometimes contrary 
to them, be blew out his brains with a shotgun, *lrer biddins his wiie 
farewell. These verses wf.re written, for his own amusement, bv a 
young mm who has long lain in his grave. Does that bo} k.ow to 
whom he speaks ? To whom does he offer such language ? 

Notes to Rule XII. 

1. These thing? should never be separated. William acted nobly. He 
has generally been reckoned an honest man. We should always prefer 
our duy. To be at work continually. Ins f ead of looking down con- 
temptuously — we should thankfully loik up. On a ra&ercuisory perusal. 
The women voluntarily con.nbuted all ibeir lings and jewels. To be 
totally engrossed and overcome. Vice always creeps by degrees, and in- 
sensibly -twines around us those concealed feuer?,bv which we are, atlast, 
completely bound. He was determined to invite the kiag back, and to cail 
his trienJs together. 2. Never did any imitator grow, or no imitator ever 
grew up to his author. Neither the king nor the queen was at all de- 
ceived. I can not, by any rrean^, or lean, by no m> ans, admit your ex- 
cuse. There cinuot bj atty thing. I have received no infoimation on 
the subject eilher from him or his friends. Neither riches, nor honor?, 
nor any such perishing good-*. 3. Ever so much. No sovereign was 
ever so beloved. Where have they been ? 

Notes to Rule XIII. 

1. Tint nobody could please him. So far as I can judge. Neither 
the edd nor the fervid. Would / cither e >t tl>e hav bitn-elr, nor suflfe: the 
ox to car.it. That it affected mo, or as to aff.-ct me. What else are vou 
than a lobbor? or Whit an; you but,;i robber? No oth r arguments than 
these? or No arguments but these? D.\den was as great a root as 
Cowper, but not so good a man. Sach as censure others. IJis character 

17 



258 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

is such thai I can not recommend him. That Italy had done. It is not 
capable. 2. We were afraid that the ship might run aground. But ihe 
name. That all the planets are inhabited. But that he was innocent 
Though the secret was communicated to verj few. Than he withdrew. 
Than to be commended. And therefore his doctrine3 were embraced by 
great numbers. 

KULE XIV. 

The better I like him. The dictates of virtue and of true honor. But 
they can not gaiu fiiends. I gladly shunned him who gladly fled from 
me. He has an affectionate brother and sister. A healthful climate and 
a fruitful soil. A fiee constitution and excellent laws. The negligent 
man, the votary of pleasure. But our fears too. Bis reputation and es- 
tate were both lost by gaming. Several men w/io died of the scurvy. 
But he is religious ton. His hoaor. his interest, his religion, were all fm- 
barked. This is that tohich men mean by distributive justice, and which 
is properly termed equity. Truth, andvw'uo, and religion, fell wi'h him. 
Neither the fear of deatb, not the hope of life. Will often be ruffled and 
disturbed. How a seed grows up into a tree, and how the mind acts 
upon the body. 

KULE XV. 

Sewed very neatly. Broken down — overflowed. To speak three sen- 
tences successively. I shall be ruiued, unless you will help me. He could 
not sit up at all, but was obliged to lie continually in bed. He died by 
violence; for he was killed with a sword. And had sat down together, 
Peter sat down amoDg them. Galileo invented the telescope; Hervey 
discovered the circulation of ihe b'ood. A traveler remarks— a general 
observes. As to remind us thai the end of it is truih. A hermit is aus- 
tere ; a judge, rigorous. We have increased our family and expenses : 
and enlarged ovv gaiden and orchard. A candid man acknouledges bis 
mistakes, a patriot avows his opposition to a bad minister. To correct 
what, is erroneous, and to supply what is defective. When ihat which is 
mortal, dies; when that wLiob is mutable, begins to change ; and wben 
that wbicb be knew to be transient, passes away. We speak what we do 
know, and testify tbat which we have .~een. She is a better reader than 
Ida, but not so good a wriier. The work has received several alterations 
and ariditiors. This edition is superior to the first and essentially different 
from it. Iron is as useful as gold, and even more useful. And whose 
tongue was loosened. Mitigates ihe common law and breaks Us teeth. 
We may improve a private and retired education, and rub off its rust. 
No peivon was ever so perplexed as he has been to-day, or sustained such 
mortifications. Might have been and probably were .good. Hut never so 
much so as in the opening of the spring, or never so beautiful kc. 



PROSODY. 259 

CONVERSATION SEVENTH. 



PROSODY. 



P. What more do we require to make us good gram- 
marians, after learning to construct our words and sen- 
tences correctly ? 

Dr. S. All our words and sentences may be constructed 
with, perfect propriety, and yet, through bad pronuncia- 
tion, fail to express our thoughts effectively : the most 
beautiful sentences may be so miserably mangled in 
reading or speaking as to weary and disgust the hearer. 

I. How can we ever learn the right pronunciation of 
every word and sentence. 

Dr. S. The right pronunciation of all the words we 
use, by lexicographers called orthoepy, you can learn 
by studying your dictionary. But the true pronuncia- 
tion or utterance of sentences, commonly called delivery 
or elocution, must be learned from Nature's Book by 
observation and experience. This requires attention to 
emphasis, pauses, tones, inflections, and gestures. 

P. P. Does it not require attention to accent and 
quantity ? 

Dr. S. Accent and quantity belong to orthoepy : they 
modify the pronunciation of single words. 

Accent is a particular stress or force of voice given 
to a certain syllable of a word, to distinguish it from 
the rest. 

Quantity is the measure of a syllable, determining 
the time in which it is pronounced. 

Emphasis is a particular stress or force of voice given 
to a certain part of a sentence, to distinguish it from 
the rest. 

Pauses are temporary cessations of the voice in read- 
ing or speaking. 

Tones are certain modulations of the voice, denoting 
the feelings of the speaker or reader. 

Inflections are certain modulations of the voice in 
passing from one note into another. The rising of the 



260 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

voice to a higher note is called the rising inflection ; 
and the falling of the voice to a lower note, the falling 
inflection. The latter is sometimes called cadence. 
Some elocutionists call the rising inflection the upward 
slide; and the falling, the downward slide. 

Gestures are motions of the body or limbs, expressive 
of sentiment or passion, making elocution more impress- 
ive. 

Will some of you write all the points of punctuation 
on the blackboard and tell us what they denote ? 

P. I will do the best I can; and if I fail, I hope }*ou 
will not criticise me too severely. The comma, , the 
semicolon ; , the colon : , the period. , the interrogation 
point? , the exclamation point ! , the dash — , the paren- 
thesis ( ) , the quotation points " " , the apostrophe ' , the 
caret A , the hyphen - , the index |5F~, the crotchets [ ] , 
the brace ,—-— , the paragraph ^[ , the section § . 

The comma denotes a pause of one syllable; the 
semicolon, two; the colon, four; and the period, six. 

The interrogation point shows that a question is 
asked. 

The exclamation point denotes sudden emotion or 
great excitement. 

The dash denotes an unexpected turn in the senti- 
ment, a sudden interruption, or a significant pause. 

Each of these three points denotes a pause of variable 
length, from two syllables to six. 

The parenthesis includes a hasty remark, introduced 
into the body of a sentence obliquely ; which may be 
omitted without injuring the grammatical construction, 
and should be read quicker than the rest of the sen- 
tence, and in a weaker tone of voice. 

The quotation points include a passage that is quoted 
from another author or speaker. 

The apostrophe denotes the omission of a letter or 
letters; as, e'en for even, tho for though. It is also used 
as the sign of the possessive case. 

The caret is used where something is omitted which 

is 

is inserted over the line : as, This my book. 

/\ 



PROSODY. 261 

The hyphen is used between the parts of a compound 
word to 'unite them, and after the part of a broken word 
that is printed or written at the end of a line, to connect 
it with the other part that begins the next line. 

The index points out something that requires partic- 
ular attention. 

The crotchets enclose an explanatory term, or some- 
thing that is intended to supply a deficiency or to cor- 
rect an error. 

The brace is used to unite a triplet, or to connect a. 
number of words with one common term. 

The paragraph denotes a new subject. 

The section denotes a sub-division of a discourse or-' 
chapter. 

Dr. S. What marks are used to direct the reader to- 
some note in the margin, or at the bottom of the page? 

P. The asterisk * , the obelisk f , the double dag- 
ger:}:, parallels || , letters, and figures. 

Dr. S. Well done ! Now you may rub off what you 
have written. I will write and punctuate several sen- 
tences ; which each of you must read, and then pick 
out and name each point of punctuation. 

See natter next, with various life endu'd, 
Tres* to one centre st'll, tbe gen'ral good : 
See dying vegetables lite sustain, 
See life dissolving vegetite again. 
All form? that perish other forms supplv ; 
(Bv turns we catoh the vital breath and die ;) 
Like bubbles on the sea, of matter borne, 
They rise, they break, aud to that sea return. 

Who bids the stork, Columbus like, explore 
Heav'u^ uot his own, and worlds unknown before? 
Who calls the council, states the certain day, 
Who forms the phalanx, and who points the wav ? 

While man exclaims, ' S.^e all things for my use I" 
"see man for mine ! ' replies a pampcr'd goo^c. 

What ! do you think 
I shave for a penny, and give you a drink ? 

The king of France, with forty thousand 0MB, 

If jrched up the hill ; and then — marched down again. 

Here lies tbe great — False marble, where ? 
Nothing but sordid dust lies here. 



262 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Jack. Yesterday she made your wine cordial out of 
sour beer, and to-day she makes you an almond cake 
of— 

Capt. Hold your tongue, sir. 

I am your lordship's most obsequious — zounds ! what 
a peer of the realm ! 

Dr. S. I hope you will not be offended, if I criticise 
your reading, and suggest improvements. It is gen- 
erally too stiff and artificial. Some of you that have 
most excellent voices, lay them aside in reading, and 
assume the voice of some great orator which nature 
never intended you to use. Improve your voices all 
you can, but guard against affectation. Whether you 
read, or speak in public, follow nature : use the same 
accents, emphases, pauses, tones, inflections, and gest- 
ures, that you do in earnest conversation. Bead and 
speak as you would talk to confidential friends on the 
same subject, when you are in earnest and perfectly free 
from all embarrassment. To be distinctly heard and 
clearly understood by all your audience, is the first 
requisite. Occasionally cast your eye on the most dis- 
tant person in the assembly, and regulate your voice as 
if you were addressing him : we naturally speak loudly 
enough to be understood by the person whom we ad- 
dress. But distinct and accurate articulation is more 
essential than mere loudness of voice, to make you 
clearly and easily understood by a large assembly. 
Pronounce all your words distinctly and deliberately, 
but never trail nor drawl them ; and see that all your 
emphases, pauses, tones, inflections, and gestures, be 
perfectly natural, easy, and graceful. 

R. How can we ever learn to do all this? 

Dr. S. By attending to the manner in which nature 
teaches us to speak, when engaged in real and earnest 
discourse with others. In animated conversation, we 
seldom fail to use the proper emphasis, pauses, tones, 
inflections, and gestures. Make this your model for 
reading and public speaking. Study what you are to 
read till you understand it thoroughly, and enter into 
the spirit of the author's sentiments ; and then deliver 



PEOSODY. 263 

them as you would speak them, if they were your own. 
Even children learn the proper use of emphasis, pauses, 
tones, inflections, and gestures, in their common con- 
versation, long before they learn to read ; and the prin- 
cipal thing that the}' - require, to become good readers, 
is, to apply their ordinary mode of speaking to their 
reading, and to read as they talk. Of course, they 
should be taught to correct bad habits, and pronounce 
their words correctly. This we all should do in com- 
mon conversation, as well as in reading and public 
speaking. We should study our dictionaries, and learn 
to pronounce every word we speak, according to the 
best authority, till we acquire a habit of correct pro- 
nunciation. There comes Henry through the garden, 
with as many pigeons and squirrels as he can carry. 
Look ! see Edward running out to meet him in great 
excitement. Now look out for one of Nature's dia- 
logues, a real, earnest, natural conversation. See if all 
their emphases, pauses, tones, inflections, and gestures, 
are not perfectly natural, graceful, and expressive. Now 
take notice what they say, and how they say it. Write 
their conversation on your slates ; then read it just as 
they speak it, but without mimicry : use your own- 
voices. 

E. O Henry/ what beautiful pigeons ! Where did you 
get them ? 

H. In the wheat-field. 

E. Did you shoot them or catch them in the netf 

H. We caught them in our net 

E. Did you catch them? 

H. No : father caught them. 

E. Where did he catch them ? in your wheat-field ? 

II Certainly : we never catch pigeons in other folk's 
fields. 

E. You saiu him catch them? did you?' IIow did 
they act when the net was sprung over them ? 

H. How did they act ! They fluttered beautifully. 

E. When did he catch them ? to-day ? 

JET. Yes; before sunrise. 



264 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

E. Before sunrise ! What early risers ! Did your 
father catch the squirrels in the net? 

H. No : I shot the squirrels. 

E. What ! did you shoot them ? 

H. Yes : /shot them myself with our old gun. 

E. You did'nt though? did you? How dare you 
doit? 

H. To be sure I did. Do you think Tm afraid to 
shoot ? 

i£ Oh ! You did, eh ? What are you going to do 
with them ? 

II. What am I going to do with them ! Cook them 
and eat them. 

E. Eat them ! Why, you don't eat squirrels ? do. 
you? 

H. Certainly. We've eat hundreds of them at our 
house. 

E. I would rather eat the pigeons than the squirrels. 

H. Will you come and dine with me to-day ? 

E. I wish I could: I'd like to eat some of these good 
fat pigeons. But I am going to uncle Johns to-day. 

H. You'll come to-morrow then ? Will you tell 
Charles to come to our house this afternoon at one 
o'clock, and help me eat some pigeons and squirrels? 

E. Tell Charles to come this afternoon ? the greedy 
little dog ! — if he gets a chance at them to-day, there 
will be precious little left for me to-morroio. 

II. Excuse me, Edward : I must hurry home. Good 
morning, sir. 

Dr. S. If you can read this conversation half as well 
as these two little boys have spoken it, I shall call you 
pretty good readers. I observed that all their emphasis, 
pauses, tones, inflections, looks, and gestures, were cor- 
rect, and perfectly natural, easy, graceful, and expressive. 
There was nothing stiff or formal in their speaking. 
But their conversation was entirely free from affectation, 
and restraint. Their voices filled the garden like the 
music of the birds, with native melody. Though they 
were four or five rods distant, every word could be dis- 
tinctly heard and clearly understood. How beautifully 



PROSODY. 265 

they used the rising, the falling, and the circumflex in- 
flection ! better than I ever heard them used in read- 
ing. How graceful were their emphasis and pauses ! 
How expressive were their tones and gestures ! With, 
what sweet and thrilling music did they modulate their 
voices, as if Nature herself were addressing us through 
them, and urging us to use the voices she has given us, 
and to lay aside for ever our disgusting affectation and 
pomposity, our tedious cant, our dull monotony and 
stiff formality ! Now read h just as you would speak 
it yourselves, if you were talking in earnest, as they 
were just now. Don't imitate their voices, but give 
your own free play and full scope, as you do in an- 
imated conversation. Eead as you talk in earnest dis- 
course with others;' and you will soon acquire a grace- 
ful ease in reading, and a beautiful flexibility of voice, 
without which you can never be good readers or elo- 
quent speakers. You might as well attempt to dance 
on stilts, as to read effectively and gracefully with an 
assumed voice, or in an artificial, stiff, affected manner. 

P. Will you explain the inflections and tell us how 
to use them ? 

Dr. S. Questions that cannot be answered by yes or 
no, take the falling inflection : as, " Where did you 
get them?" " What are you going to do with them?" 
Direct questions that can be answered by yes or no, 
take the rising inflection : as, "Did you shoot them?" 
" Will you come and dine with me to-day ?" Indirect 
questions take the circumflex inflection: as, "You 
did'nt though?" "Oh! you did, eh?" "Why, you 
don't eat squirrels ?" " You'll come to-morrow, then ?" 
The circumflex inflection is sometimes called the waving 
slide. When two questions arc connected by or, the 
former takes the rising, and the latter the falling inflec- 
tion : as, " Did you shoot them, or catch them in a net?" 
Take nature for your guide : read every question just as 
you would ask it, if you were talking. Then the right 
inflections, will come of their own accord, and be nat- 
ural and easy. Why, the smallest children in the school, 
seldom fail to use the right inflections in their conver- 
sation. 



266 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

R. Will you give us a few illustrations of emphasis? 

Dr. S. Emphasis materially affects the meaning of a 
sentence. This short question, " Will you ride to Rome 
with me to-day?" is capable of several different an- 
swers, if we emphasize it differently. Now, as I re- 
peat this question, answer it according to the emphasis. 

Will you ride to Rome with me to-day? 

R. No : but Sarah will. 

Will you ride to Rome with me to-day? 

R. No : I intend to walk. 

Will you ride to Rome with me to-day? 

R. No : I shall ride to Utica. 

Will you ride to Rome with me to-day ? 

R. No: I will ride with William. 

Will you ride to Rome with me to-day ? 

R. No: but I will to-morrovj. 

Will you ride to Rome with me to-day? 

R. To be sure I will, if I can get a chance. 

M. Explain the nature and use of tones and pauses. 

Dr. S. Tones are the natural expression of our feel- 
ings. They are understood alike by the learned and 
the ignorant. They are to the voice what the express- 
ion of the countenance is to the face, the signs of inter- 
nal feelings. All our passions and emotions are made 
manifest alike by our tones and our looks: the angry 
tone and the frowning countenance are equally express- 
ive of anger; and are understood alike by all; by the 
little child, as well as by the aged sage ; by the rudest 
savage, as well as the most polished citizen. If you 
should tell us that you are very much grieved, or very 
angry, in a cheerful, pleasant tone of voice, and with a 
smiling countenance, instead of being believed, you 
would be laughed at. Every act of the mind, every 
exertion of the fancy, and every emotion of the heart, 
has its peculiar tone of voice exactly suited to the de- 
gree of internal feeling. The Author of our being has 
impressed this language of emotion upon our nature, 
in the same manner as he has done with regard to the 
rest of the animal world ; all of which express their 
various feelings by various tones. Appropriate tones 



PROSODY. 267 

cannot be acquired by art : they must arise from genu^ 
ine native feeling. Spurious tones, like counterfeit 
coin, are easily detected. The best rule that I can give 
you for acquiring the right tones in reading, is, to fol- 
low nature. Study what you read till you understand 
it fully. Enter into the spirit of the author, and make 
his sentiments your own. Reflect upon them till you 
think and feel as he did. Then the proper tones will 
come unsought, and flow spontaneously from the heart. 
Correct bad habits ; and avoid unnatural tones, such as 
these: inflated, pompous tones, affected, mincing tones, 
boisterous tones, whining, drawling tones, dull, monot- 
onous tones, stiff, pedantic tones, sanctimonious tones, 
sing-song tones, snappish, jerking tones, and all the 
counterfeit tones employed by those who " imitate hu- 
manity so abominably." When the Lord has given us 
good natural voices, is it not a sin and shame for us to 
spoil them by affectation ? 

The principal use of pauses is, to mark the divisions 
of the sense, and give the hearer time to reflect on what 
is said and fix it in his memory ; and also to permit the 
speaker to draw his breath, and rest the organs of 
speech, so that he can proceed with his discourse with- 
out improper interruptions. Pauses in reading and in 
public speaking, should be made in the same manner as 
in polite and sensible conversation. To render pauses 
graceful and expressive, you must make them, not only 
in the right places, but with proper tones and inflections, 
just as you do in talking, when }'ou are in earnest and 
entirely free from all embarrassment. You must pay 
sufficient attention to the punctuation of what you read, 
to ascertain the meaning and the true grammatical con- 
struction. Then read right on as you would talk on the 
same subject. Never be so trammeled with the points 
and marks of punctuation as to make your reading stiff 
and artificial ; stopping at an interrogation point, a colon, 
or a period, as if you had run against a post. 

R. Give us an explanation of punctuation. 

Dr. S. It would require more time and paper, to ex- 
plain it so that you could understand it thoroughly, than 



268 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

we can spare at present. I have nothing better to offer 
you on this much neglected, but important part of 
prosody, than Mr. Wilson's " Treatise on English Punc- 
tuation," which I am glad to see introduced into our 
best schools. 

The principal use of the common points, and marks of 
punctuation is, to help us get the sense of what we read. 
The pauses they denote are, therefore, called sentential 
pauses. Besides these, we have emphatical, and poeti- 
cal pauses. An emphatical pause is made after some- 
thing of great importance has been said, on which we 
wish to fix the hearer's attention ; and. sometimes be- 
fore an important thing is said. Such pauses should 
not be used too frequently, lest they occasion disap- 
pointment and disgust, by raising expectations which 
are not fully answered. 

Poetical pauses, (sometimes called harmonic pauses,) 
are such as the harmony of verse requires. They are 
sub-divided into the final pause and the cesural pause. 

The final pause takes place at the end of the line, 
closes the verse, and marks the measure: thecesural 
divides it into equal or unequal parts. 

These pauses sometimes coincide with the sentential 
pauses, and sometimes have an independent state ; exist- 
ing where there is no stop in the sense. 

The final pause preserves the melody, without inter- 
fering with the sense. For the pause itself perfectly 
marks the bound of the meter ; and being made only by a 
suspension of the voice, not by any change of note, it 
can never affect the sense. 

The close of a line, where there is no pause in the mean- 
ing, should be marked, only by so slight a suspension of 
sound as to distinguish the passage from one line to an- 
other, without injuring the sense : as, 

The tallest pines feel most the power 
Of wintery bla<t; the loftiest tower 
Comes heaviest to tbe ground. 

The cesural pause generally occurs after the fourth, 
the fifth, the sixth, or the seventh syllabic of the line ; 



PKOSPDY. 269 

and occasionally, though rarely, after the second, the 
third, or the eighth syllable : as, 

No longer now | that golden age appears, 
"When patriarch wits | survived a thou^aad year3: 
How length of fame | (oar second liie) is lost. 
And bare tbreesco e | is all ev'n that can boast: 
Our sor^s | their lathers' filling language see. 
And such as Chaucer i-< | shall Dn dtn be. 
So when the taitbful pencil | bas designed 
Some bright idea | of the master's mind, 
Where a new world | leaps out at his command, 
A' d ready Nature | wails upon his hand; 
When the ripe colors | gotten and unite, 
Ano sweetly melt | Into just, shade and light, ; 
When mellowma years | their lull peifection give, 
And each bold figure | icsi begins to Jive, 
The trtacb'rous colors | the f'iir art betray, ■ 
And all ihe bright creation | lades away. 

Unhappy wit, | like most mistaken things, 
Atones not | ior that envy which it bring:: 
la youto alone | its emptv praise we boast, 
But soon the short-lived vamu | is lost ; 
Like some lair flower | the early spring supplies, 
That gaily blooms, | bat ev'n in blooming dies. 

When the cesural pause conies after the fourth sylla- 
ble the melody of the verse is brisk and lively : as, 

On her white breast | a spaikling cross she wore, 
Which Jews might kiss | and infidels adore. 

When it occurs after the fifth syllable the melody is 
graver, and the verse becomes more smooth and flow- 
ing : as, 

The groves of Eden, | vanished now solonrr, 
Live in description, j and look green in song. 

When it follows the sixth syllable the melody be- 
comes still graver, and the movement of the verse more 
solemn and majestic : as, 

Devotiou's self shall steal | a thought from heaven, 
One human tear shall drop, | and be foigiven. 

Some verses require harmonic pauses before and after 
the cesural which are properly called d e ru i- cesural 
pauses : as, 

Wirms | in the sup, | refre c hes | in the breeze, 
Glows | in the stais, | and blossoms | in the trees. 



270 ENGLISH GEAMMAB. 

P. What is versification ? 

Dr. iS. Versification is a musical arrangement of 
words into lines called verses. 

The elements of verse are called poetic feet ; because 
the voice, by means of accent, steps along on them 
through the verse, in a measured pace. 

There are in English four kinds of principal poetic 
feet; trochees, iambuses, dactyls, and anapests. There 
are also four kinds of secondary poetic feet ; spondees, 
pyrrhics, amphibrachs, and tribrachs. Every trochee, 
iambus, spondee, and pyrrhic consists of two syllables ; 
each of the others contains three syllables. 

A trochee has the first syllable accented, and the last 
unaccented ; as, Rosy, morning. 

An iambus has the first syllable unaccented, and the 
last accented ; as, Convey, attend. 

A dactyl has the first syllable accented, and the two 
latter unaccented ; as, Fearfully, dutiful 

An anapest has the third syllable accented, and the 
other two unaccented ; as, Disenthrall, overthrow. 

A spondee has both its syllables accented ; as, " The 
pale moony 

A pyrrhic has both its syllables unaccented ; as, " On 
the tall tree." 

An amphibrach has the first and the last syllable un- 
accented, and the middle one accented ; as, Arising. 

A tribrach has all its syllable unaccented ; as, in- 
nnmerable. 

Lines that consist of trochees are called trochaic 
verses ; those that consist of iambuses, iambic verses ; 
those that consist of dactyls, dactylic verses ; and those 
that consist of anapests, annpestic verses. 

IAMBIC VEESE, 

The mid | night moon | serene | ly smiles 
O'er na | ture's soft | repose ; 
No low' | ring cloud | obscures | the sky, 
Nor ruf | fling tem | pest blows. 

The seas | shall waste | the skies | in smoke | decay 
Rocks fall j to dust | and mount | ains melt | away. 



PROSODY 271 

TROCHAIC VERSE. 

Hark they | whisper | angels | say, 
Sister | spirit | come a | way. 

Jesus | sought me | when a | stranger, 
Wand'ring | from the | fold of j God. 

DACTYLIC VERSE. 

Say, shall we | yield him, in | costly de | votion, 
Odors of | Eden and | off'rings di J vine? 

Gems of the | mountain, and | pearls of the | ocean, 
Myrrh from the | forest, and | gold from the j mine ? 

ANAPESTIC VERSE. 

When I think | of my own | native land 
In a mo J ment I seem | to be there ; 

But, alas ! | recollec | tion at hand, 
Soon hur j ries me back | to despair. 

A trochaic or iambic verse may consist of any num- 
ber of poetic feet from one to six with an additional 
syllable, occasionally, at the end of the line : as, 

See them fly Oo the mountain In the days oi oid, 

In the sky. By a fountain. Fables plainly told. 

On a bed of roses Restless mortals toil for nought; 

Sweetly she reposes. Bliss in vain irom eaith is sought. 

Messmates hear a brother sailor Plumed coDcelt lumself surveying, 
Sing the dangers of the sea. Folly with her shadow playing. 

On a mountain stretched beneath a hoary willow, 
Lay a shephetd swain, and viewed tbe rolling billow. 

Relenting, To me the rose But never, like these roses, 
Repenting. No loDger glow?. Shall wither Mary's truth 

Solitude I now eive me rest, 
And hush the tempest in my breis\ 

To sigh for ribands if thou art ««H30 silly, 
Mark how they grace Lord Umbra or Sir Billy. 

But fixed his word, his savin? power remains : 
Thy realm for ever lasts, thy own Messiah reigns. 

The length of dactylic and anapestic verse varies from 
one foot to four. Dactylic verse generally assumes one 
additional syllable ; and sometimes, two : a?, 



272 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Brightest and bpst of the sons of the morning, 
Daivu on our darkne?s, and lend us thine aw/; 

Star of the east, the hor zon adorning. 
Guide where the infant Redeemer is laid. 

Anapestic verse sometime closes with an additional 
syllable; and frequently begins with an iambus : as, 

See truth, love, and mercy, id triumph descending, 

And raa'ure all glo *iu« in E leu's first bloom ! 
Oa the co'd check of death smiles and roses ara blending, 

And beauty immortal, awakes from the tomb. 

Iambic verse sometimes begins with a trochee : as, 

Her lively looks a sprightly mind disclose, 
Quick as her eyes, aud as uufixed as those: 
Favors to none, to all she smiles extends: 
Oft she rejects, but never once offends. 

Secondary poetic feet are never used to make entire 
verses ; but they are interspersed among the principal 
feet for the sake of variety and poetical expression : as, 
Tliat on local- wings from far pursues your flight 

On ttie green bank to look into the clear 
Smooth lake that tome seemed another sky. 

See the bold youth strain up the threat'uiog steep. 

Inn amerable before th' Alm"ght\'s throne. 

Rhyme is a correspondence in sound at the end of 
different verses. 

Blank verse is verse without rhyme. 

A verse is a line consisting oi a certain number of 
poetic feet musically arranged. 

A stanza is a certain part of a poem containing ever/, 
variety of verses in that poem. 



ERRATA. 

6th page, 17th line, for ars read acts. 

29th page, 28th line, before gve read we. 

42d page, 36th line, for contrcis read contracts. 

47th page, 2d line, for noby read nobody. 

88th page, 17th line, for in read into. 

119th page, 32d line, for will think read doeUi. 

127th page, 22d line, for me read we. 

137th page, 3d line, for admission read submission. 

236th page, 19th line, tor Alrens's read Alreuiss. 

254th page, 24th line, for Atrens' read Atrcus\ 



CONTENTS 



CONVERSATION I.— ORTHOGRAPHY. p^ e . 

A general view of grammar, 5 

Articulate, and vocal sounds, 12 

Letters, 12 

Vowels and consonants, mutes and semi-vowels, 13 

Dipthongs, digraphs, and triphthongs, 13 

Syllables and words, 13 

The elementary sounds, 14 

Exercise in teaching the elementary sounds, 20 

Remarks on language and the organs of speech, 25 

CONVERSATION II.— THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

Preliminary observations, 28 

Exclamations, 36 

Nouns, 39 

Pronouns, 42 

Adjectives, 45 

Verbs, 52 

Prepositions, 66 

Adverbs, 71 

Connectives, 78 

CONVERSATION III.— VARIATIONS OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 

Proper and common noun's, 89 

Gender, 90 

Number, 92 

Person, 94 

Case, 98 

Preparatory exercises for parsing nouns and pronouns, 101 

Exercises in parsing nouns and pronouns etymologically, 105 

CONVERSATION IV.— VARIATIONS OF PRONOUNS, ADJECTIVES 
AND ADVERBS, AND EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

Personal pronouns, 109 

Connective and interrogative pronouns, 110 

Distributive, demonstrative, and indefinite pronouns, Ill 

Declension of nouns and pronouns, 113 

Exercise in parsing pronouns etymologically, ... .115 

Exercise in parsing pronouns syntactically, 118 



274 INDEX. 

Page. 

Exercise in parsing adjectives etymologically, 1 29 

Exercise in parsing adverbs etymologically, 131 

Comparison, 132 

Exercise in parsing exclamations, nouns, pronouns, and adjectives, 

syntactically, 133 

CONVERSATION V.— VARIATIONS OF VERBS. 

Regular and irregular verbs, 141 

Transitive and intransitive verbs, 144 

Tbe active and the passive voice, 146 

Moods, 157 

Tenses, , 161 

Participles, 1-68 

Number and person, .169 

Conjugation, 169 

Synopsis of the moods and tenses, 182 

Remarks on the tenses of the subjunctive mood, 191 

Exercise in parsing verbs etymologically, 193 

Derivation, 196 

Exercise in parsing all the parts of speech syntactically, 199 

CONVERSATION VI.- SYNTAX. 

The rules of syntax, 207 

Notes to the rules of syntax, , 208 

Application of parsing to the correction of false syntax, 217 

False syntax corrected without parsing, 220 

Remarks on infinitives and participles, 221 

Adjectives used as predicates, 225 

Predicate nouns and pronouns, and apposition nouns and pronouns, . 226 

The nominative case independent, 228 

When antecedents or subjects are taken together or separately, . . . .229 

Ellipsis illustrated, 23 1 

Violations of the rules and notes, 233 

Corrections of false syntax under each rule and note, 253 

CONVERSATION VII.— PROSODY. 

The points of punctuation, 260 

Remarks on reading and public speaking, 262 

The inflections, 265 

Emphasis, 2G6 

Tones and pauses, 266 

Emphaical and poetical pauses, 268 

Versification, 270 



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